The Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

2019 ◽  
pp. 177-205
Author(s):  
Derek Attridge

This chapter is concerned with the vernacular poetry of Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Side-by-side with the monastic production and preservation of poetry, the castles and courts of the nobility became centres of culture. France, in particular, saw extensive poetic activity, notably in the genres of the chanson de geste and the troubadour lyric. Other French genres of the time include saints’ lives, romances, lais, and fabliaux; the use of the octosyllabic line for these poems is examined. Poetry in the Germanic languages, notably the Middle High German courtly epics and Minnesänger lyrics and the Old Norse eddic and skaldic poetry of Iceland, is discussed, as is the lyric poetry of Italy. The evidence for the experience of poetry in Dante’s Vita nuova is considered. The rhythmic variety of Middle English verse, it is argued, suggests some uncertainty in the adoption of French metres.

PMLA ◽  
1921 ◽  
Vol 36 (3) ◽  
pp. 401-428 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. W. Rankin

The orthodox view regarding the introduction of end rime into English verse is succinctly set forth in the following quotations : “ Endrime, being a stranger to the early Germanic languages, its appearance in any of them may commonly be taken as a sign of foreign influence. In general, of course, rime and the stanza were introduced together into English verse, under the influence of Latin hymns and French lyrics.” “ Die alliterierende Langzeile war die einzige in der ags. Poesie bekannte Versart und blieb in derselben bis zu ende der ersten ags. oder altenglischen Sprachperiode in Gebrauch.” “ The transformation of the O. E. alliterative line into rhyme verse did not take place before the Middle English period. It was due to the influence of the rhymed French and Latin verse.” “ Alliterative verse was remodelled on Latin and French verse—or foreign verses were directly imitated.” The implication is that there never existed in Anglo-Saxon any verse of a form different from that of the five-type alliterative verse which prevails in the corpus of extant Anglo-Saxon poetry.


Diachronica ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 29 (1) ◽  
pp. 98-115
Author(s):  
Laura Catharine Smith

For a century, Old Frisian has largely remained in the shadows of its Germanic sister languages. While dictionaries, concordances, and grammars have been readily and widely available for learning and researching other Germanic languages such as Middle High German, Middle Low German and Middle English, whose timelines roughly correspond to that of Old Frisian, or their earlier counterparts, e.g., Old High German, Old Saxon and Old English, few materials have been available to scholars of Old Frisian. Moreover, as Siebunga (Boutkan & Siebunga 2005: vii) notes, “not even all Old Frisian manuscripts are available as text editions”1 making the production of comprehensive core research materials more difficult. Consequently, what materials there have been, e.g., von Richthofen (1840), Heuser (1903), Holthausen (1925), and Sjölin (1969), have typically not taken into consideration the full range of extant Old Frisian texts, or have focused on specific major dialects, e.g. Boutkan (1996), Buma (1954, 1961). This has left a gap in the materials available providing an opportunity for Old Frisian scholars to make substantial contributions to the field by filling these gaps.


Author(s):  
Robert McColl Millar

Perhaps the central chapter of Contact, we focus here on the rapid and radical changes English passed through in relation to inflectional morphology (in particular but not exclusively in the noun phrase) in the later Old English and early Middle English periods. Comparison is made to other Germanic languages; the concept of drift is introduced. Theories for why these changes occurred and why the changes took place where, when and how they did are considered, with particular focus on earlier contact explanations. Recent proposals that bilingualism with Celtic languages was the primary impetus for the changes are critiqued. It is suggested that, while Celtic influence should not be dismissed, it is contact between Old English and Old Norse in the North of England which acted as catalyst. This contact is seen as a koine whose origin is markedly similar to that postulated for modern new dialects.


Author(s):  
Daniel Sawyer

This volume offers the first book-length history of reading for Middle English poetry. Drawing on evidence from more than 450 manuscripts, it examines readers’ choices of material, their movements into and through books, their physical handling of poetry, and their attitudes to rhyme. It provides new knowledge about the poems of known writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Lydgate, and Thomas Hoccleve by examining their transmission and reception together with a much larger mass of anonymous English poetry, including the most successful English poem before print, The Prick of Conscience. The evidence considered ranges from the weights and shapes of manuscripts to the intricate details of different stanza forms, and the chapters develop new methods which bring such seemingly disparate bodies of evidence into productive conversation with each other. Ultimately, this book shows how the reading of English verse in this period was bound up with a set of habitual but pervasive formalist concerns, which were negotiated through the layered agencies of poets, book producers, and other readers.


Speculum ◽  
1945 ◽  
Vol 20 (1) ◽  
pp. 105-111
Author(s):  
Francis Lee Utley
Keyword(s):  

Diachronica ◽  
1994 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 13-34 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chris B. McCully ◽  
Richard M. Hogg

SUMMARY The form and distribution of Middle English poetic texts is neither accidental nor the sole consequence of French (or Latin) literary influence. In particular, we claim that changes in poetic form are enabled by language change, specifically and in the Middle English period by changes in word- and phrase-stress patterning. Such linguistic changes initially take place in different dialects at different rates. Since dialects show at least partial synchronic isomorphism between phonological and metrical forms, it is reasonable to explore the consequences of such isomorphism in Middle English, and come to some (tentative) conclusions about the metres, the alliterative patterning, and the di-atopic variation in Middle English verse. We include data and analyses connected with the coming of systematic rhyme, different forms of alliterative writing, metrical promotion and subordination, and isosyllabism. These help to justify the initial assumptions that dialect variation is metrically significant and that poetic form and change is enabled by changes in stress-patterning. RÉSUMÉ La forme et la disuibution des textes poétiques du moyen anglais n'est ni le résultat d'un accident ni entièrement la conséquence de l'influence littéraire française (ou latine). Nous prétendons, en particulier, que les changements dans la forme poétique deviennent possibles grâce aux changements dans la langue, plus spécifiquement, durant la période du moyen anglais, grâce aux changements au niveau de l'accentuation des mots et des phrases. Initialement, de tels changements linguistiques se produisent dans des dialectes différents et à des vitesses différentes. Puisque les dialectes démontrent un isomorphisme du moins partiellement synchronique entre les formes phonologiques et métriques, il semblerait raisonnable d'explorer les conséquences d'un tel isomorphisme en anglais moyen et d'en venir à quelques conclusions préliminaires sur sa métricité, son allitération et sa variation diatopique. Nous incluons, par ailleurs, les données et les analyses reliées à l'avènement de la rime systématique, aux diverses formes d'allitération, à la promotion et subordination métrique, aussi bien qu'à l'isosyllabisme. Tout cela contribue à justifier les suppositions initiales, voire que la variation dialectale a une importance de nature métrique et que la forme ainsi que le changement poétique sont motivés par des changements au niveau de l'accentuation. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die Art und Verbreitung der mittelenglischen Literatur ist weder zufällig noch als das Ergebnis franzosischer (oder lateinischer) Einflüsse anzusehen. In diesem Aufsatz wird vornehmlich die Auffassung vertreten, daß Ânderungen in der dichterischen Form durch Sprachwandel ermoglicht werden. Während der mittelenglischen Periode geschah dies vor allem durch Ânderungen im Be-tonungsmuster von Wörtem und Wortgruppen. Solche sprachlichen Veränderungen traten in den verschiedenen Dialekten weder gleichzeitig noch regel-maßig auf. Da die Dialekte synchron gesehen zumindest teilweise eine Isomor-phie zwischen phonologischen und metrischen Strukturen aufweisen, lassen sich im Mittelenglischen einige Folgen dieser Isomorphic untersuchen. Sie erlauben zumindest einige vorläufige Schliisse iiber Metrik, Stabreimmuster und diatopische Varianten in der mittelenglischen Dichtung. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wurden Materialien und Analysen berücksichtigt, die sowohl mit dem Auftreten des Endreims als auch mit den verschiedenen Formen der Stabreim-dichtung zusammenhängen, etwa mit dem Isosyllabismus und der metrischen Profilierung oder Unterordnung. Dièse bestätigen großtenteils unsere An-nahmen, da8 Verschiedenenheiten innerhalb der Dialekte fur die Metrik von Bedeutung sind und da6 der Wandel in der poetischen Ausdrucksform durch Ànderungen im Wortbetonungsmuster ermoglicht wird.


Author(s):  
Daniel Sawyer

This chapter investigates manuscript evidence for readers’ attention to one particular aspect of form, rhyme. The chapter begins by examining occasions when scribes copied Middle English verse in unusual layouts with atypical lineation, because such occasions drove scribes to punctuate the structures of poems more explicitly. The resulting punctuation reveals that scribes often read, and expected other readers to read, cycles of rhyme, not individual lines, as the basic building-blocks of rhyming verse. The chapter then turns to the evidence of rhyme braces. Manuscript case-studies show that readers were usually adept and accurate when adding rhyme braces, but did not always choose to represent the actual rhyme. Their decisions reveal an aesthetic interest in balanced and unbalanced structures in rhyme, which helps to explain the effects and pleasures offered by some unbalanced stanza forms of the period, such as rhyme royal. A systematic quantitative survey of the braces in long poems written in couplets then shows how much care and labour was spent representing rhyme accurately even in copies of poems which modern scholarship has tended to regard as essentially utilitarian texts. Readers had, it is suggested, a strong formalist interest in rhyme in all kinds of rhyming verse. The evidence also demonstrates that different readers could pursue different kinds of formalism, and that poets did not always see eye to eye with the readers who eventually absorbed and transmitted poetry.


Author(s):  
Daniel Sawyer

This chapter explores navigation in the reading of later Middle English verse, examining how readers entered books of poetry and how they moved around within poems. The chapter explores the varying fates of the navigational apparatus in different poems, and discusses the use and, sometimes, creation by readers of summaries, tables of contents, and indexes to English poems. A quantitative survey of fixed bookmarks offers a new method for recovering readers’ movements. Finally, the chapter examines how navigation could obscure the distinctions between individual texts and whole books, and could sometimes be used by later-medieval readers to manipulate attribution and canonicity. Past discussions of navigation in reading have often used a distinction between continuous and ‘discontinuous’ (out of order) reading; this chapter concludes that considerably more fine-grained gradations are visible within these two categories.


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