AbstractThe extent to which distal non-coding mutations contribute to Mendelian disease remains a major unknown in human genetics. Given that a gene’s in vivo function can be appropriately modeled in vitro, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing enables the large-scale perturbation of distal non-coding regions to identify functional elements in their native context. However, early attempts at such screens have relied on one individual guide RNA (gRNA) per cell, resulting in sparse mutagenesis with minimal redundancy across regions of interest. To address this, we developed a system that uses pairs of gRNAs to program thousands of kilobase-scale deletions that scan across a targeted region in a tiling fashion (“ScanDel”). As a proof-of-concept, we applied ScanDel to program 4,342 overlapping 1- and 2- kilobase (Kb) deletions that tile a 206 Kb region centered on HPRT1, the gene underlying Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, with median 27-fold redundancy per base. Programmed deletions were functionally assayed by selecting for loss of HPRT1 function with 6-thioguanine. HPRT1 exons served as positive controls, and all were successfully identified as functionally critical by the screen. Remarkably, HPRT1 function appeared robust to deletion of any intergenic or deeply intronic non-coding region across the 206 Kb locus, indicating that proximal regulatory sequences are sufficient for its expression. A sparser mutagenesis screen of the same 206 Kb with individual gRNAs also failed to identify critical distal regulatory elements. Although our screen did find programmed deletions and individual gRNAs with putative functional consequences that targeted exon-proximal non-coding sequences (e.g. the promoter), long-read sequencing revealed that this signal was driven almost entirely by rare, unexpected deletions that extended into exonic sequence. These targeted validation experiments defined a small region surrounding the transcriptional start site as the only non-coding sequence essential to HPRT1 function. Overall, our results suggest that distal regulatory elements are not critical for HPRT1 expression, and underscore the necessity of comprehensive edited-locus genotyping for validating the results of CRISPR screens. The application of ScanDel to additional loci will enable more insight into the extent to which the disruption of distal non-coding elements contributes to Mendelian diseases. In addition, dense, redundant, large-scale deletion scanning with gRNA pairs will facilitate a deeper understanding of endogenous gene regulation in the human genome.
Spatial and temporal regulation of a foreign gene by a prestalk-specific promoter in transformed Dictyostelium discoideum.