This paper presents a new approach to the use of removal data in estimating the size of a population of fish or other animals. The theory admits a variety of assumptions on how catchability varies among fishings including the assumption of constant catchability, which underlies most previous work. The methods here hinge on maximum likelihood estimation, and they can be used both to decide objectively if the data justify rejecting constant catchability and to determine confidence intervals for the parameters. The work includes a new method of assigning confidence to the population estimate and points out problems with methods currently available in the literature, even in the case of constant catchability. The theory is applied both to data in historical literature and to more recent data from streams in New Brunswick, Canada. These examples demonstrate that the assumption of constant catchability can frequently lead to serious errors in data interpretation. In some cases, the conclusion that the population size is well known may be blatantly false, and reasonable estimates may be impossible without further data.