Pei Xiu (791–864) and Lay Buddhism in Tang Chan

Pei Xiu 裴休 (791–864) was a literati follower of Buddhist teachers, among whom the two most eminent were Zongmi 宗密 (780–841) and Huangbo Xiyun 黃檗希運 (?–850). These two teachers had notably different spiritual orientations: one was the synthesizer of Chan and Huayan teachings, the other a member of the more radical Hongzhou 洪州 school. Rather than passively patronizing Buddhist teachers, Pei Xiu served as an active agent of his own religiosity and influenced Buddhist communities broadly. Through examining Pei Xiu’s Quanfa putixin wen 勸發菩提心文 [Essay Exhorting the Generation of Bodhicitta], Chuanxin fayao 傳心法要 [Essentials of The Transmission of Mind], which he prefaced and edited, and his various prefaces and epitaphs written for Zongmi and other monks, this study scrutinizes the transformation of early Chinese Chan communities before they were reimagined as ‘mature’ and ‘classical’ in later times.

The Bodhisattva Ideal

This chapter provides an in-depth look at the central character of the Vimalakīrti Sūtra by analyzing the manner in which the bodhisattva ideal is presented. It examines several aspects of this ideal: the bodhisattva vow, the difference between monastic and lay Buddhism, and the way that Buddhist enlightenment is envisioned. The image of Vimalakirti as a character in the text emphasizes his “skillful means” of teaching the Buddhist dharma and of living his life, his inclusive outreach to all living beings, and the extent to which he overcomes the dichotomy between pure and impure aspects of human life.

From Temples to Teahouses

This article presents an overview of the nature of lay Buddhist revival in post-Mao China. After defining the category of lay practitioner, it outlines key events in the revival of lay Buddhism following the end of the Cultural Revolution. Following this, it describes three main aspects of the revival: the grassroots-organized formation of communities of lay Buddhists that gather at temples either to share and discuss the moral teachings of Buddhist-themed media or to engage in devotional activities; devotional and pedagogical activities organized for lay practitioners by monastic and lay leaders at temples and lay practitioners’ groves; and, more recently, the emergence of private spaces for specific practices such as meditation, the appreciation of Buddhist art and culture, and the discussion of teachings from specific Buddhist masters. The article concludes that while government-authorized temples continue to be active spaces for lay practitioners interested in Dharma instruction from monastics, regular devotional activities, and opportunities to earn merit and gain self-fulfillment through volunteerism, greater state restrictions on spontaneous lay-organized practices in temple space are increasingly leading lay practitioners to organize activities in private or semi-private spaces. The introduction of social media has facilitated the growth of Buddhist-related practices for laypersons in nontemple spaces.

Prelude: Red Pines and Black Sheep

This Prelude to Chapters One through to Six introduces the story of three generations of the Akamatsu family, whose tri-generational patriline illustrates well the changes which shaped institutional and lay Buddhism in the five decades from the Buddhist Enlightenment through the beginning of the Asia Pacific War.

Warp and Woof

Chapter 3, “Warp and Woof: The New Buddhist Discovery of Society,” provides a detailed examination of the Warp and Woof Society (Keiikai 経‎緯‎會‎) and the New Buddhist Fellowship (Shin Bukkyō Dōshikai 新‎仏‎教‎同‎志‎会‎) of the 1890s and early 1900s, as embodied and expressed in the life and work of the New Buddhists Furukawa Rōsen, Sakaino Kōyō, Takashima Beihō, Sugimura Sojinkan and Watanabe Kaikyoku. With the exception of Furukawa, who died the year before it was founded, all of these figures contributed to the journal Shin bukkyō新‎仏‎教‎, published by the New Buddhist Fellowship from 1900 through 1915. In particular, the chapter focuses on the turn within New Buddhism to society as a locus for Buddhist practice and awakening. The chapter concludes with an overview of institutional and lay Buddhism during the last two decades of Meiji.

“I am the Buddha, the Buddha is Me”: Concentration Meditation and Esoteric Modern Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar

In postcolonial Burma, two trends within lay Buddhism — largely in tension with one another — developed into large-scale movements. They focused upon different meditation practices, insight meditation and concentration meditation, with the latter also including esoteric lore. An impetus largely shared by the movements was to define an “authentic” Buddhism to serve as the primary vehicle of the quest for individual, local, and national identity. While insight meditation was generally considered Buddhist meditationpar excellence, concentration meditation was ascribed a more dubious Buddhist identity. Given this ambiguity, it could be considered rather paradoxical that concentration meditation could be viewed as a source of “authentic” Buddhism.The aim of this article is to investigate the issue of identity and the paradox of authenticity by examining the concentration meditation practices of one large esoteric congregation and tentatively comparing its practices with those of the insight meditation movement. It will be argued that the movements represented two varieties of so-called modern Buddhism (rationalist modern Buddhism and esoteric modern Buddhism) drawing on different Buddhist imaginaries and representing two main trends that are largely diametrically opposed to one another. They therefore represent two ways of constructing an individual, local, and national identity.