Human Activity and Forest Degradation Threaten Populations of the Nigeria–Cameroon Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Western Cameroon

Increased human activities such as commodity-led deforestation, extension of agriculture, urbanization, and wildfires are major drivers of forest loss worldwide. In Cameroon, these activities cause a loss of suitable primate habitat and could ultimately threaten the survival of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We derived independent estimates of the population size of the Endangered Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve, Cameroon, and surrounding unprotected forest areas through 1) direct observations, 2) camera trapping, 3) distance sampling, 4) marked nest counts, and 5) standing crop nest counts. In addition, we georeferenced signs of chimpanzee and human activity along line transects. We used a generalized linear mixed model to predict the occurrence of chimpanzees in response to edge length (measured as the perimeter of core forest patches), core area of forest patches (measured as area of forest patches beyond an edge width of 100 m), habitat perforation (measured as the perimeter of nonforested landscape within core forest patches), patch size(measured as area of forest patches), and forest cover. Chimpanzee density estimates ranged from 0.1 (direct observation) to 0.9 (distance sampling) individuals km−2 depending on estimation method with a mean nest group size of 7 ± 5.4 (SD). The mean encounter rate for signs of chimpanzee activity was significantly higher in mature forests (2.3 signs km−1) than in secondary forests (0.3 signs km−1) and above 1000 m elevation (4.0 signs km−1) than below 1000 m (1.0 signs km−1). The mean encounter rate for signs of human activity was significantly higher in secondary (8.0 signs km−1) than in mature forests (0.9 signs km−1). Secondary forests, habitat perforation, and edge length had a significant negative effect on the occurrence of chimpanzee signs. Overall, human activity and forest degradation affected the number of observed chimpanzee signs negatively. Regular antipoaching patrols and reforestation programs in degraded areas could potentially reduce threats to populations of endangered species and may increase suitable habitat area.

Interactions Between People and Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) Around Mbam-Djerem National Park, Central Cameroon

Understanding the interactions between local people and chimpanzees is crucial to develop sustainable wildlife conservation strategies and management policy in the Mbam-Djerem National Park (MDNP). The MDNP covers about 416,512 ha and shelters the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ellioti) being the most endangered of all currently recognized chimpanzee subspecies. Close to 30,000 people live in the periphery of the MDNP and depend on the park’s resources for subsistence. We investigated the extent of, and factors leading to, the interactions between people and chimpanzees through a socio-economic survey focusing on households (124) and individual interviews (38) in 30% of villages around MDNP. About 95% of the respondents stated that human–wildlife conflict is an issue around MDNP. Access to resources (78.9%), crop damage (84%), and animal attack (11.3%) were the main sources of conflicts. The ground squirrel Xerus erythropus (59.7%), the green monkey Chlorocebus aethiops (20.2%), chimpanzees (7.3%) and baboons Papio anubis (5.6%) were identified as the main conflict animals and the destroyed crops included peanuts (70.2%), maize (15%) and cassava (5%). The population perceptions differed between the park’s four sectors and were significantly influenced by education and the main livelihood activity. The study also provided quantitative evidence on the role of personal and religious beliefs on the behavior towards chimpanzees. Our findings suggest that the improvement of income-generating activities and education will contribute to strengthening the conservation of chimpanzees.