Quantifying the nutritional and income loss due to crop raiding in rural African subsistence farming community in South Africa

Globally, crop damage by wildlife contributes to food insecurity through direct loss of food and income. We investigated the calories lost and potential economic impact of crop raiding to subsistence homesteads abutting the Hluhluwe Game Reserve and assessed their mitigation measures to combat crop raiding. We quantified the seasonal loss of calories (KJ/g) of four common crops: beetroot (Beta vulgaris), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), maize (Zea mays) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and determined seasonal potential income loss based on local market cost of crops. Experimental data used for this study were collected from April 2016-March 2017 and questionnaire data were collected in March 2016, using a stratified sampling approach to sample the homesteads. We selected every second homestead for the interview and restricted the survey to one respondent per homestead to avoid pseudo-replication of results. In the one year of sampling, we did not record any large mammals crop raiding, both from direct observations and camera trap footage, we also did not find a statistically significant relationship between the level of damage and distance of farms from the reserve boundary. Throughout the study, we captured a total of 96 individual rodents comprising of two species: red bush rat (Aethomys spp.; 67.7%; 51 males and 28 females) and pouched mouse (Saccostomus campestris; 32.3% (14 females and three males ) and we used the damage caused by these animals and other small animals to quantify the level of damage. We found that season, crop type, farm slope and the interaction between season and crop type were significant predictors of relative calorie loss. Again, season, crop type and the interaction between season and crop type were significant predictors of the potential income loss, with the highest income loss recorded for spinach in the dry season. In addition, significant differences were found for potential income loss for all crop types in the wet season, and for the interaction between crop types maize, spinach and the wet season, but no significant difference was found for crop type common bean and the wet season. A multinomial regression analysis revealed that crop raiding animal type, crop types raided and distance of farms from the reserve all had a significant effect on the choice of mitigation measures farmers used. Most importantly we found the highest relative calorie loss for maize during the dry season, which could impact on subsistence farmers by reducing their daily calorie intake and impact on their food security especially during the season where subsistence farming is slow. Moreover, as the most preferred mitigation measure by farmers can have opportunity costs to this community, such as the loss of school time for children. These results have important implications for food security policies and socially related policies and practices.

Linking gut microbiome with the feeding behavior of the Arunachal macaque (Macaca munzala)

Exploring the gut microbiome is an emerging tool for monitoring wildlife health and physiological conditions which often sustained under the variety of stresses and challenges. We analyzed gut microbiome of Arunachal macaque (Macaca munzala) of two disjunct populations from Arunachal Pradesh, India, to validate whether the geography or the feeding habits plays a principal role in shaping the gut microbiome in natural populations. We observed geography has a mere effect but feeding habits (i.e. feeding upon the leftover food and crop-raiding) significantly influenced the gut microbiome composition. The phylum Proteobacteria found to be enriched in leftover feeding group while phylum Bacteroidetes was differentially abundant in crop-raiding group. We observed predominant phyla Firmicutes followed by Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes with the dominant classes represented by the Clostridia. Interestingly, one individual with known diarrheal/metabolic disorder exhibited complete dominance of the order Bacillales and showed 100% sequence similarity with genus Solibacillus. We raise concern that shift in diet of macaques may compel them to expose for various human diseases as two macaques feeding upon the leftover food exhibited dysbiotic gut microbiome. The present study provides the pragmatic evidences of how the alteration of food resources can harm the physiological condition of the macaques in wild and raises alarm to the forest officials/managers in strategise planting of natural food resources and monitor anthropogenic activities in the distribution of Arunachal macaques.

Construction of Natures and Protests on Instagram: A Study of Virtual Environmental Activism in India During the COVID-19 Pandemic

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown in India restricted ‘real world’ protests, shifting dissent to digital spaces. In this article we explore virtual environmental activism on Instagram by looking at two case-studies that gained prominence during this period. The first was the death of a pregnant elephant in Kerala by consuming cracker-laden food meant to deter boars from crop-raiding. The second was an oil and gas leak in Baghjan, an ecologically sensitive region in Assam. Through content analysis of ‘Top’ posts, we thematically classified the representations of nature and non-humans constructed through Instagram visuals, identifying overlaps and contradictions in the two cases. Observing that the images of animals in pain generated massive response, we argue that Susan Sontag’s (2003) framework on the haunting power of images of human suffering can be expanded to include non-humans. These visuals highlight certain creatures, excluding other species and vilifying human communities belonging to the same landscapes. We show how unilinear models of economic development and progress, as well as hierarchical and casteist notions in Hinduism continue to shape environmental debates in India. The religious overtones discount the environmental discourse based on scientific knowledge, and disrupt nuances of community driven action. By tracing the online trajectories of the two protests, we also illustrate how virality limits Instagram activism by sidelining local voices and privileging short-lived consumer action over systemic change.

Explaining the Effect of Crop-Raiding on Food Security of Subsistence Farmers of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa

Across the globe, crop-raiding has been known to have a significant impact on subsistence farmers livelihoods in developing countries. However, the relationship between crop-raiding and food security of small-scale farmers is not well-studied. We investigated the effects of crop-raiding on homestead food security of a subsistence farming community on the edge of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve in northern KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. We analyzed the relative calories lost to important food security crops (maize, common bean, spinach, and beetroot) damage by crop raiders. In addition, we conducted questionnaire surveys of resident farmers and conservationists of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve to explain the effect of crop-raiding on food security. We firstly assessed how crop loss influenced relative calorie loss as an indicator of food security by comparing relative calorie loss with two predictors of food security: homestead size and contribution of crops to the farmers' food basket. Larger homesteads were more prone to food insecurity as compared to smaller households as they experienced higher calorie loss, especially in terms of maize (Zea mays), the most important food security crop in South Africa. This was because maize contributed the highest (91–100%) to the homestead food basket of these farmers. Secondly, we assessed farmers and conservationists' perceptions and opinions on crop-raiding issues. Farmers reported maize as the crop most damaged by crop-raiding animals. Conservationists reported crop-raiding with other major problems in and around the Reserve; this showed that conservationists acknowledge the issue of crop-raiding as a problem for subsistence farming communities abutting protected areas. Both farmers and conservationists reported insects as the most damaging crop raider. Our study suggests that larger homesteads, particularly where maize contributes substantially to homestead food baskets, are more prone to food insecurity in the rural subsistence farming community that we studied. In concordance with many studies, insects were reported as the culprits by both farmers and conservationists. Small, ubiquitous animals, such as insects are reported to cause much crop damage where they occur. The findings of our study suggest that the food security of the studied farmers is threatened by crop-raiding.

Spatiotemporal association of human-elephant conflict around Parsa National Park, Nepal

This study was carried to evaluate the Spatio-temporal association of human-elephant conflict (HEC) among five different rural municipalities (Nirmalbasti, Jirabhawani, Sakhuwaparsauni, Parsagadhi, and Paterwasugauli) of Parsa District around Parsa National Park in 2019. Primary data was collected by using questionnaire surveys with victims’ family and local people using random sampling method, key informant interviews with Chief Conservation Officer of Parsa National Park, District Forest Officer, ZSL field official, Chairperson of Batika Buffer Zone User Committee, focus group discussion, and field visit to verify the information. Total six people were killed and one person was survived with severe injury by the elephant attacks between 2013 and 2019 in the study area. Crop raiding was perceived as the most serious conflict from the elephants by local people. People around the national park are mostly farmers with a low level of income. They are mostly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Elephants are damaging the crops of the farmers making their livelihood difficult. HEC intensity was highest during the rice harvest season (65%), and at night (83%). Local farmers also reported that the aroma of ripening paddy had an interesting relation with HEC, it was associated with elephants’ crop-raiding behavior. Local farmers did not use any specific traditional mitigation measure but believed that planting unpalatable crops and constructing a solar fence around the national park minimizes HEC and will promote co-existence between people and elephants.

Determinants of Human-Elephant Conflict in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Southern India

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a negative interaction between elephants and humans. HEC affects local community livelihood and the success of elephant conservation. The Asian elephant population and HEC were studied in the Niligiri Biosphere Reserve in the year 1992 (Balasubramanian et al. 1995) using this information as baseline data. We have studied HEC in the selected 14 villages located in the Moist Deciduous forest and Thorn forest areas of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve from Nov 2006 to Mar 2008, which were part of the earlier study. The data on crop species, elephant damages, protection method and land-use changes concerning HEC were collected fortnightly by direct enumeration and questionnaire survey. A total of 297 crop damage incidences were recorded. The crop-raiding pattern and the peaks in raiding are during monsoon periods were similar to the earlier study. A total of seven people were killed and six were injured by the attack of elephants in the ten years (1998 to 2008) and results in 1.3 incidences/year. The overall crop damage has declined from 2.1% in the early 1990s to 0.98%. The spatial location of HEC indicated that the mean damage percent was higher in the peripheral areas (1.51%) than in the center of the village (0.18%). There is a major shift from crops grown for food (finger millet) to commercial reasons. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the effective perimeter length (perimeter with cultivation) and total area of cultivation had a primary influence on the crop damage, followed by the area of degradation around the village and percent edible crops in the boundary. Further, logistic regression on crop-raiding incidences with the independent predictors indicated that among habitats in the MDF the crop-raiding incidences were 95% higher than that of TF. Palatable crop species plantain, paddy, finger millet and vegetable crops were 391% raided more frequently than the non-palatable species. Crops with protection methods were 22% less frequently damaged than the crops without any protection. Thus changes in the crop species, improved protection and land-use changes have reduced HEC in the adjacent areas of Mudumalai TR. The resettlement of villages from the core area of reserve in MDF would greatly reduce HEC in MTR.

The efficacy of interventions to protect crops from raiding elephants

Both African elephants (Loxodonta spp.) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) across their range come into conflict with people because of their crop-raiding behavior, which presents profound impediments to farmer livelihoods. In response, a series of interventions, designed to reduce elephant crop raiding have been applied. Based on an extensive review of elephant crop-raiding studies published over a 31-year period, we identified four primary categories of interventions including: (i) detection efforts; (ii) preemptive measures; (iii) fencing and trenches; and (iv) deterrent techniques. The interventions reported to be most effective involved chili peppers (i.e., fences, spray, and briquettes) and crop guarding coupled with deterrents. The extent to which these interventions can be applied more widely is unclear as only two studies examined efficacy across sites in more than one country. Thus, future inquiry should evaluate the ability of effective interventions, or indeed a combination of interventions, to be applied across the range of elephants to reduce crop raiding at scale.

Spatiotemporal movement pattern of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 in Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra, India

The extension of the Asian Elephant’s Elephas maximus range in the northern Western Ghats (Sahyadri) was observed since 2002. This colonization was marked by elephant crop raiding events in the newly colonized Sindhudurg District, where the local community had no experience of living with elephants. The present study was conducted to understand the spatiotemporal patterns of crop depredation (raiding) and to prioritize areas to inform future interventions on managing this ecological phenomenon turned conflict. Data on crop raiding between 2002 and 2015 was obtained from compensation records with the state forest department, and mapped at village scale. Subsequently, we used three indices of crop raiding, viz., Crop Raiding Frequency (CRF), Relative Crop Raiding Intensity (RCRI), and Crop Raiding Vulnerability Index (CRVI). Results show a gradual northern movement of elephants and of the crop raiding zone over the period of 2002–2015. The rankings provided by CRVI, identified villages in a narrow strip of foothills of the Sahyadri mountains as severely vulnerable. With sufficient long term data, CRVI would be a highly useful index for prioritization of villages for resolving human-elephant negative interactions; and other cases of human-wildlife interactions too.