Conclusion

Murtaḍā’s theology is assessed to gauge its debt to Muʿtazilism, with reference to the findings above. Its contribution to the consolidation of Imami Shiʿi identity is likewise examined, with the aim of tracing the scope and duration of his influence. The interaction of cosmology, ethics and theology is investigated, particularly where they converge to answer critical questions of human experience. The dynamics of this interaction thus serve as a basis for classifying Murtaḍā’s doctrinal system in light of his cultural milieu and with reference to recent scholarship. As such, the monograph serves to deepen readers’ understanding of Islamic intellectual history writ large and to depict a particularly influential conceptual framework from within the parameters of religious faith as shaped by sectarian identities.

Moral Theory and Divine Justice

This chapter investigates the position of human beings in this theological system. Its point of departure is a definition of the human being, from which it develops an understanding of human agency in relation to God and the world. Divine assistance (luṭf) is highlighted as the bridge between human autonomy and divine sovereignty. Following is an elaborate description of religious experience: its origins, justification, relevant parties, responsibilities and characteristics. The concept of moral obligation (taklīf) is shown to be the cornerstone of Murtaḍā’s theory on religion. The chapter is divided into three sub-headings: The Human Being; Justification of Moral Obligation; Characteristics of Moral Obligation.

God and the World

This chapter explains the conceptual framework of Murtaḍā’s system by detailing his views of God and the natural world. It presents a discussion of the major epistemological tools needed to construct an understanding of being, such as his view on the role of reason, the method of investigation and the need for evidence. Following is a study of the basic ontological claims that govern both divine and natural realms; atoms and accidents, the constitutive units of the world, are studied both as independent entities and as the basis for casual relations that govern all existents. The last part concentrates on God’s attributes, with emphasis on Murtaḍā’s efforts to create a coherent system to satisfy various conceptual requirements while still preserving the integrity of earlier Shiʿi doctrines. The key is his classification of attributes into essential and accidental, informed by the Muʿtazilī ‘Theory of States’. The chapter is divided into four sub-headings: Epistemological Sketch; Ontological Sketch; God’s Attributes; Theoretical Model

The Imama and the Need for Moral Leadership

This chapter covers Murtaḍā’s changes to the doctrine of Imama, which proved to be permanent. Understood as an expression of divine assistance, the Imama is studied in its theoretical aspects: definition, justification, charismatic qualifications and relation to political philosophy. This establishes the theory’s two core principles: the necessity of the Imama and infallibility of the Imam. The discussion then turns to an examination of applications of the theory to particular Imams, introducing a sacred-historical outlook that starts with Muhammad’s designation of ʿAli as his successor. The last part treats two major challenges arising from inopportune historical developments, i.e. the Imami view of Muhammad’s companions and the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. The chapter is divided into three sub-headings: Theoretical Model; The Test of History; Inconvenient Outcomes.

Humans and the Origins of Religious Experience

This chapter examines moral theory and its compatibility with divine justice. It analyses the theoretical foundations of moral judgments, investigating the nature of desert as a connection between acts and consequences. The next part investigates God’s acts from the standpoint of justice, whether He extends grace or causes evil. The last part covers the elaborate taxonomy of deserved treatments accruing from human worldly acts, tracing the pervasive moral classification of otherworldly outcomes. The complex question of divine pardon of sinners is given special attention in light of its potential effect on the value of punishment as a divine act. The chapter is divided into three sub-headings: Moral Theory; God as a Moral Agent; Consequences

Life and Works

This chapter presents an overview of Murtaḍā’s context and a detailed account of his life. It thus studies his career as student, teacher, politician and religious authority. As the head of the ʿAlids, he coordinated between Buyid power and Abbasid reign in the humanistic atmosphere of the renaissance of Islam. There follows a survey of his most important writings, intended to acquaint readers with each work’s general objectives and specific contribution. The last section of this chapter is dedicated to an exhaustive bibliography of Murtaḍā, addressing questions related to the authenticity of certain works. The chapter is divided into three sub-headings: The Man and His Time; Magna Opera; Bibliography

Prophethood and the Value of Divine Guidance

This chapter studies the notion of prophethood as the pinnacle of human perfection. Prophets being also Imams, the theoretical aspects the two roles have in common will be omitted from analysis. In the theory section, emphasis is placed on prophethood as the channel of divine assistance communicating sacred laws. Miracles pertaining to Murtaḍā’s occasionalist view on natural laws are discussed, and conflict between religious laws examined in light of the belief in the progressive revelation of God’s word. In the application section, the focus is on Murtaḍā’s peculiar view, heretofore unstudied, on the miraculous nature of the inimitability of Qurʾān. Finally, an exposé of his attempts to resolve contradictions between theory and application is provided. The chapter is divided into two sub-headings: Theoretical Model; Historical Disclosure.

Introduction

The introduction defines the problem, situates it historically and intellectually, and briefly surveys existing scholarship. The scarcity of studies on Shiʿi theology being evident, the scholarly community is in clear need of such a monograph. Starting with the debate sparked by Jāḥiẓ (d. 868), it will then turn the main thesis of the book, which is concerned with the extent to which Muʿtazili theology influenced Imami Shiʿism and Murtaḍā’s crucial contribution to the doctrinal development of the Shiʿi tradition, especially in relation to the formation of sectarian identity and the adoption of a specific form of rationalism. In addition to Murtaḍā, the main parties to this debate are ʿAbd al-Jabbār, Mufīd and Ṭūsī. Finally, the introduction will pose a question about the plausibility of classifying Murtaḍā’s theology under any of the categories of faith types proposed by modern theologians.