Conclusion

This concluding chapter discusses how the story of Alcibiades' life requires consulting both historical and literary texts. The honors bestowed on his tomb by the emperor Hadrian have served as the epilogue of Alcibiades' death. This is not surprising since Hadrian was known to be an admirer of Greek culture. Nor is it surprising that cultivated Romans knew about Alcibiades. They read Plato, the Greek historians, and later Plutarch. And in addition to the biography written by Cornelius Nepos, one encounters Alcibiades in all the scholars of the imperial age. After that, a heavy veil of silence fell. There is no mention of Alcibiades through the Middle Ages until the reappearance of Greek texts. The chapter then offers an analogy between Alcibiades' life and the unification of Europe. When one looks back at his life, the crisis in democracy is what is most striking and moving today.

With the Athenians on Samos

This chapter focuses on the Athenians on Samos. Samos had first embarked on oligarchy. There were attacks. Hyperbolus, the democrat whom Alcibiades had struck with ostracism, was assassinated. Androcles in Athens, Hyperbolus in Samos: Alcibiades' enemies fell, as though at random. But this disorder brought consequences. The generals, who were inclined to oppose oligarchy, were warned, as were those men known to be most opposed to the movement. These individuals in turn worked with the soldiers. On the appointed day, when the partisans of the oligarchy were going to attack on a larger scale, they ran into an organized resistance and were beaten. The two sides made peace—under the democracy. Henceforth there were two Athens: the government in Athens, oligarchic, and that in Samos, democratic. Samos, or rather the Athenians on Samos, considered themselves independent. There can be very few examples of a rupture affecting such a small city and installing two enemy factions so far apart. This rupture was conceived by Alcibiades and it would change the course of his life.

The Scandals

This chapter looks at two grave matters which erupted in Athens between when the Sicilian expedition had been approved and the day of departure. On a beautiful morning, it was discovered that all the herms in the city had been mutilated. These herms were simplified statues of the god Hermes. They appealed to the god for protection; they had religious significance. The fact that such a blow had struck all the herms implied intention. An air of panic swept through the city; something sinister was believed to be threatening Athenian democracy. Clearly, one of their fears was that people would band together to bring about a less democratic regime, one that was openly oligarchic. If there was someone considering tyranny, who was a more likely object of suspicion than Alcibiades? His enemies would immediately exploit these very natural fears and accusations about him spread. Meanwhile, a slave named Andromachus was presented by his master and swore that he had been present, in a private house, for a parody of the sacred mysteries, in which Alcibiades, among others, had also participated. Soon, there were numerous allegations that this double sacrilege was a prelude to overthrowing the democracy. From that time on, things began to go badly for Alcibiades.

Richly Endowed

This chapter provides a background of Alcibiades. One quality is immediately apparent about Alcibiades: he is exceptionally gorgeous. All the sources speak of his beauty and describe all the love affairs in which he figures. It should be remembered that at that time beauty was a virtue, widely recognized and celebrated. Along with beauty, Alcibiades had charm and the power of seduction. He was a celebrity, the spoiled child of Athens, allowed to do whatever he pleased and admired for everything he did. Indeed, Alcibiades came from an aristocratic family, a fact not to be ignored even in the egalitarian democracy that governed Athens at the time. Around the middle of the fifth century BCE, powerful families were highly regarded and enjoyed considerable authority. Alcibiades came from the two largest of these families. He was thus born with every advantage, everything money could buy to advance his career, from an excellent education among the greatest minds to the means of achieving fame throughout the democracy. The chapter then describes the friendship between Alcibiades and Socrates.