A Socio-cosmological Approach to Anti-Christian Violence

This chapter describes the distinctive nature of the constructivist approach to the analysis of Hindu–Christian conflict that is relative to the well-developed literature on ethnic and religious conflict. It explains how the constructivist approach differs from both the instrumentalist and essentialist approach to interreligious conflict. It also elaborates the conflict between Christian and Hindu groups in the instrumentalist view that occurs as a result of competition over material resources and political power. The chapter describes the conflict between groups in the essentialist view that occurs because of long-standing differences between Christians and Hindus in terms of ethnicity, religion, language, social custom, culture, and political governance. It explores the constructivist position that accepts the insight that human behavior is primarily driven by material and political interest.

A Geography of Anger

This chapter reviews the constructivist approach to Hindu–Christian conflict that is recognized with the instrumentalists and discusses the important role of material interests while acknowledging that religion really does matter. It explains how religion provides to proponents of Hindutva a convenient organizing principle that unites disparate local conflicts. It also explores the unifying banner that serves the interests of the largely upper-caste Hindu leaders of the Sangh Parivar that enables them to unify Hindus against a common, external enemy. The chapter describes the Hindu–Christian conflict in India that is often framed by proponents of Hindutva as a clash of incompatible world views. It refers to Hindus associated with the Sangh that perceive in the universalizing religion of Christianity as an implicit rejection of their view that religions are and should be ethnic.

A Prehistory of Hindu-Christian Conflict

This chapter provides a historical exposition on the development of Hindu–Christian conflict and on how certain conflicts in India came to be understood as “religious” conflicts between “Hindus” and “Christians.” It emphasizes the world-historical forces that played and continue to play a role in the construction of Hindu–Christian conflict. It also elaborates how colonization and globalization contributed to the construction of Hindu–Christian conflict. The chapter analyses local and global factors that explain why particular groups come into conflict, why at a particular time, and why in a particular way. It mentions the resistance of some Hindus to what they perceive as the undesirable but inexorable global diffusion of modern, secular ideals as one of the reasons for the conflict between Hindus and Christians.

“Darkness, Loneliness, Loud Noises, and Men”

This chapter looks at economic competition and frustration as the significant cause of the Pana–Kandha conflict in Kandhamal. It also describes Pandals as a visible, public demonstration of presence that often precipitate contestation over space, as one did at the beginning of the 2007 riots in Kandhamal. It also follows reports in newspapers that were written after the dust of Kandhamal had settled to some degree and corresponded closely with accounts provided by victims. The chapter refers to Sangh Parivar politicians and sympathizers who alleged that the broad correspondence in the narratives of victims, minority-rights activists, and government commissions were derived from a mutual reliance from the Western, liberal, anti-Hindu, minority-oriented bias of the national, English-language press. It reviews the element of propaganda involved in how both Christians and their critics tell the story of what happened in Kandhamal.

“Everyday” Anti-Christian Violence

This chapter provides statistical data that support the notion that anti-Christian violence is more likely when Christians approach Hindus in their competitiveness for jobs and other social resources. It looks at the widespread and disproportionately high involvement of Christians in the social service sector, in which Christians comprise 2.5 to 5 percent of the Indian population. It also mentions non-Christians in India who find the significant Christian investment in social service impressive and admirable, describing it as a feather in the community's collective cap. The chapter discusses the Christian investment in social service as a carry-over from the colonial era that is suspected of being a ploy to advance Christian ideological, religious, and economic interests. It explores the economic explanation for Hindu–Christian conflict that is placed within a broader discussion of globalization and its effects in India.

The Social Construction of Kandhamal’s Violence

This chapter talks about Paul Brass, who has argued against the academic inclination to seek the “causes” of riots in his book The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India from 2003. It discusses the causal explanations of riots that are always overly simplistic and do not take into account the fact that all kinds of violent actions take place under the cover of the discourse of communalism. It also suggests that analysts should focus instead on the forms of violence and on the specific question of who is served by communal conflict. The chapter identifies the groups that benefited from the riots in Kandhamal which supported the Sangh Parivar's project of religious homogenization. It outlines the significant effects of riots on the religious landscape of Kandhamal.

Introduction

This chapter explains and theorizes anti-Christian discrimination and violence in India, including the global rise in anti-Christian hostility or increase in antireligious hostility and interreligious violence over the last decades. It highlights the vast majority of violence in contemporary India that targets Christians, such as the large-scale and deadly riots in Kandhamal. It also cites the occurrence of several small-scale incidents of violence against India's Christians every year. The chapter looks at the everyday forms of violence against Christians that go unnoticed, as well as the anti-Christian violence that garner international media attention and shock or mystify observers. It recounts the attack on half a dozen Catholic institutions in Delhi in December 2014 and January 2015 where several cases had anti-Christian sentiment as the prime motivation.