Conclusion

and Keywords to be supplied.

Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) and Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)

These two were the furthest apart in age, ideology, and importance to the revolutionary process. Gandhi developed the revolutionary strategy and most of the tactics, and he was the undisputed leader of the mass movement. Though they had a close relationship, like uncle and nephew, they diverged widely on several key issues, notably Gandhi’s fasts. Nevertheless, Nehru always drew back from the brink of a schism, and he regularly acceded to Gandhi’s plans. Shortly after independence, Gandhi was assassinated and Nehru led India forward.

Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895)

The most important ideologists of modern revolutions, these two German thinkers were the closest of the pairs. They were like brothers, and Engels financially supported Marx. They participated in one revolution and commented critically on world events during the second half of the nineteenth century. Though they only wrote three books together, they influenced each other’s work.

Mao Zedong (1893–1976) and Zhou Enlai (1898–1976)

Personality wise, these two were the furthest apart, and one is amazed that Zhou managed to maintain his role in the revolutionary and post-revolutionary processes. The mercurial Mao needed the steady Zhou. Mao was the great thinker and catalyst of the Chinese revolution, while Zhou was the great administrator. Zhou always knew when to defer and even prostrate himself.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924) and Lev Davidovich Trotsky (1879–1940)

Though they were bitter political foes for 14 years, Lenin and Trotsky came together in the summer of 1917 and oversaw the Bolshevik takeover of power in October. Though Lenin was the clear leader of the revolutionary government, he appointed Trotsky to key positions, notably fighting the civil war. Lenin also protected Trotsky, who had accumulated many enemies. Following Lenin’s death, in 1924, Trotsky was pushed out of power and into exile.

Fidel Castro (1926–2016) and Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–1967)

These two men, from different countries, became very close friends and revolutionists. Like Lenin and Trotsky, they fused into a dynamic pair, working together on every aspect of the revolution and the revolutionary state. Fidel was the planner and overseer of the movement; Che was the inspired implementer. Che, however, had little patience with administration, and for him the Cuban revolution was to be a catalyst for third-world revolutions. He left Cuba to oversee unsuccessful revolutions in Congo and Bolivia. Che died young, in Bolivia; Fidel rule Cuba for over fifty years.

Introduction

There have been many revolutions during the course of world history. Until what I would call “the age of revolution,” or the “short” twentieth century (1905–1991), those were the work of collective bodies (Puritans in England, Sons of Liberty in the British North American colonies, and Girondists and Jacobins in France). But in my designated age of revolution, paired revolutionaries is the key phenomenon. Each of the four most significant and influential revolutions during this period were led by a pair: Vladimir I. Lenin and Lev D. Trotsky (Russia); Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru (India); Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai (China); Fidel Castro and Ernesto “Che” Guevara (Cuba). Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the godfathers of three of those revolutions, participated in one revolution but in their lifetimes did not witness the successful revolutions they had worked so hard to inspire....