<p>Anxiety is one of the most common forms of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Understanding the mechanisms that underlie the development and maintenance of this disorder is therefore critical. A variety of factors that interact with one another are likely to contribute to the risk and perpetuation of anxiety in young people. Moreover, risk and maintaining factors can occur at both an individual and environmental level. Cognitive biases are one such factor occurring at an individual level that are investigated in Study 1 and Study 2 of this thesis. Cognitive biases are also predicted to have associations with particular kinds of parenting behaviours, and Study 3 investigated these parenting behaviours. Study 3, therefore, provides a bridge between individual level cognitive mechanisms and possible environmental contexts that may contribute to the risk and maintenance of anxiety in young people. In Study 1, the relationships amongst anxiety, interpretation bias, and memory bias were investigated in children (M = 10.1 years, SD = 0.8). Children with higher levels of anxiety exhibit interpretation biases; a tendency to interpret ambiguous information in a negative manner. Moreover, interpretation biases are predicted to create negative memories for ambiguous information. In Study 1, 62 children heard ambiguous information about a novel animal and their interpretation and recall for this information was assessed. Interpretation bias was significantly associated with memory bias; children who interpreted the ambiguous information in a negative way also reported a greater number of negative memories for this information. Children with higher levels of anxiety also reported a greater number of negative memories. In Study 2 the relationship between interpretation bias and memory bias was investigated within an experimental paradigm, to understand whether there was evidence for a causal relationship between these cognitive biases. Children (M = 9.7 years, SD = 1.1) heard a series of ambiguous vignettes, and each vignette was followed by either a negative or a benign interpretation. Children were subsequently asked to recall the vignettes and children who had heard negative interpretations reported a greater number of negative memories. Children with higher levels of anxiety also reported a greater number of negative memories in their recall of the ambiguous vignettes. In Study 3, I investigated parental autonomy restriction and support in the context of parent-adolescent (M = 15.3 years, SD = 0.8) conversations, and their associations with anxiety, interpretation biases, and parental attributions. Higher levels of parental autonomy restriction may contribute to the risk and maintenance of anxiety in young people by signalling that the world is dangerous. Sixty-four mother-adolescent dyads were asked to discuss a recent conflict, and from this interaction maternal autonomy restriction and autonomy support were assessed. Adolescents with higher levels of anxiety and adolescents who exhibited interpretation biases to a greater extent, had mothers who demonstrated a greater amount of autonomy restriction within the conversations. Yet maternal variables were not significantly associated with either autonomy restriction or support. The results support predictions that these characteristics of young people may determine the extent of autonomy restriction parents engage in. In turn, autonomy restrictive parenting behaviours potentially play a role in the risk and maintenance of cognitive biases and anxiety. Overall this thesis contributes to an understanding of the complex and multiple relationships amongst factors that may be involved in the aetiology and perpetuation of anxiety in young people.</p>
Interpretation biases and visual attention in the processing of ambiguous information in chronic pain
