OVERPARENTING IN EDUCATION REALITY: TEACHER EXPERIENCE

Most parents would agree that parenting is extremely complex and challenging. It is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social and intellectual development of a child from infancy throughout a person’s life. Children are not born successful or unsuccessful. It is up to the parents and their behaviours to become what they become later. Normative or healthy parenting is a precondition for a child’s success, self-confidence, and autonomy. Meanwhile, non-normative, unhealthy parenting or overparenting may have a harmful impact on a child’s social skills and overall life. The research was aimed to gather teachers’ experiences about the existing parenting behaviours and to reveal the dominant parenting patterns that may be observed in nowadays child-raising practices. For this aim the research instrument was constructed designing of which was based on a specific focus on different areas of unhealthy, non-normative parenting. An international study was conducted that led to identification of the key aspects of the experience of teachers working with the overprotective parents and their children. 262 teachers from Portugal, Slovenia, Turkey, Romania and Lithuania participated in the survey. The study findings served to reveal the dominant behaviours of overparenting observed by the teachers The findings also allowed to define the difficulties that teachers face in dealing with overparenting parents and overparented children. The study was conducted in the framework of the international project “Overparenting – allow your children to make mistakes”, project No. 2020-1-PT01- KA204-078497.

Understanding mechanisms that may underlie the development and maintenance of anxiety in children and adolescents: Cognitive biases and parenting behaviours

<p>Anxiety is one of the most common forms of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Understanding the mechanisms that underlie the development and maintenance of this disorder is therefore critical. A variety of factors that interact with one another are likely to contribute to the risk and perpetuation of anxiety in young people. Moreover, risk and maintaining factors can occur at both an individual and environmental level. Cognitive biases are one such factor occurring at an individual level that are investigated in Study 1 and Study 2 of this thesis. Cognitive biases are also predicted to have associations with particular kinds of parenting behaviours, and Study 3 investigated these parenting behaviours. Study 3, therefore, provides a bridge between individual level cognitive mechanisms and possible environmental contexts that may contribute to the risk and maintenance of anxiety in young people. In Study 1, the relationships amongst anxiety, interpretation bias, and memory bias were investigated in children (M = 10.1 years, SD = 0.8). Children with higher levels of anxiety exhibit interpretation biases; a tendency to interpret ambiguous information in a negative manner. Moreover, interpretation biases are predicted to create negative memories for ambiguous information. In Study 1, 62 children heard ambiguous information about a novel animal and their interpretation and recall for this information was assessed. Interpretation bias was significantly associated with memory bias; children who interpreted the ambiguous information in a negative way also reported a greater number of negative memories for this information. Children with higher levels of anxiety also reported a greater number of negative memories. In Study 2 the relationship between interpretation bias and memory bias was investigated within an experimental paradigm, to understand whether there was evidence for a causal relationship between these cognitive biases. Children (M = 9.7 years, SD = 1.1) heard a series of ambiguous vignettes, and each vignette was followed by either a negative or a benign interpretation. Children were subsequently asked to recall the vignettes and children who had heard negative interpretations reported a greater number of negative memories. Children with higher levels of anxiety also reported a greater number of negative memories in their recall of the ambiguous vignettes. In Study 3, I investigated parental autonomy restriction and support in the context of parent-adolescent (M = 15.3 years, SD = 0.8) conversations, and their associations with anxiety, interpretation biases, and parental attributions. Higher levels of parental autonomy restriction may contribute to the risk and maintenance of anxiety in young people by signalling that the world is dangerous. Sixty-four mother-adolescent dyads were asked to discuss a recent conflict, and from this interaction maternal autonomy restriction and autonomy support were assessed. Adolescents with higher levels of anxiety and adolescents who exhibited interpretation biases to a greater extent, had mothers who demonstrated a greater amount of autonomy restriction within the conversations. Yet maternal variables were not significantly associated with either autonomy restriction or support. The results support predictions that these characteristics of young people may determine the extent of autonomy restriction parents engage in. In turn, autonomy restrictive parenting behaviours potentially play a role in the risk and maintenance of cognitive biases and anxiety. Overall this thesis contributes to an understanding of the complex and multiple relationships amongst factors that may be involved in the aetiology and perpetuation of anxiety in young people.</p>

Understanding mechanisms that may underlie the development and maintenance of anxiety in children and adolescents: Cognitive biases and parenting behaviours

<p>Anxiety is one of the most common forms of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Understanding the mechanisms that underlie the development and maintenance of this disorder is therefore critical. A variety of factors that interact with one another are likely to contribute to the risk and perpetuation of anxiety in young people. Moreover, risk and maintaining factors can occur at both an individual and environmental level. Cognitive biases are one such factor occurring at an individual level that are investigated in Study 1 and Study 2 of this thesis. Cognitive biases are also predicted to have associations with particular kinds of parenting behaviours, and Study 3 investigated these parenting behaviours. Study 3, therefore, provides a bridge between individual level cognitive mechanisms and possible environmental contexts that may contribute to the risk and maintenance of anxiety in young people. In Study 1, the relationships amongst anxiety, interpretation bias, and memory bias were investigated in children (M = 10.1 years, SD = 0.8). Children with higher levels of anxiety exhibit interpretation biases; a tendency to interpret ambiguous information in a negative manner. Moreover, interpretation biases are predicted to create negative memories for ambiguous information. In Study 1, 62 children heard ambiguous information about a novel animal and their interpretation and recall for this information was assessed. Interpretation bias was significantly associated with memory bias; children who interpreted the ambiguous information in a negative way also reported a greater number of negative memories for this information. Children with higher levels of anxiety also reported a greater number of negative memories. In Study 2 the relationship between interpretation bias and memory bias was investigated within an experimental paradigm, to understand whether there was evidence for a causal relationship between these cognitive biases. Children (M = 9.7 years, SD = 1.1) heard a series of ambiguous vignettes, and each vignette was followed by either a negative or a benign interpretation. Children were subsequently asked to recall the vignettes and children who had heard negative interpretations reported a greater number of negative memories. Children with higher levels of anxiety also reported a greater number of negative memories in their recall of the ambiguous vignettes. In Study 3, I investigated parental autonomy restriction and support in the context of parent-adolescent (M = 15.3 years, SD = 0.8) conversations, and their associations with anxiety, interpretation biases, and parental attributions. Higher levels of parental autonomy restriction may contribute to the risk and maintenance of anxiety in young people by signalling that the world is dangerous. Sixty-four mother-adolescent dyads were asked to discuss a recent conflict, and from this interaction maternal autonomy restriction and autonomy support were assessed. Adolescents with higher levels of anxiety and adolescents who exhibited interpretation biases to a greater extent, had mothers who demonstrated a greater amount of autonomy restriction within the conversations. Yet maternal variables were not significantly associated with either autonomy restriction or support. The results support predictions that these characteristics of young people may determine the extent of autonomy restriction parents engage in. In turn, autonomy restrictive parenting behaviours potentially play a role in the risk and maintenance of cognitive biases and anxiety. Overall this thesis contributes to an understanding of the complex and multiple relationships amongst factors that may be involved in the aetiology and perpetuation of anxiety in young people.</p>

Γονεϊκή σοφία

Η σοφία αναγνωρίζεται από τη σύγχρονη ψυχολογική έρευνα ως ένα από τα πλέον θετικά χαρακτηριστικά των ανθρώπων. Κεντρική έννοια μελέτης της παρούσας διατριβής αποτελεί η έννοια της γονεϊκής σοφίας, η οποία δεν έχει προηγουμένως μελετηθεί. Σκοπό της παρούσας διατριβής αποτέλεσε (α) η ανάπτυξη ενός μοντέλου και μιας κλίμακας μέτρησης για τη γονεϊκή σοφία (Μέρος πρώτο διατριβής) και (β) η ανάπτυξη, εφαρμογή και αξιολόγηση ενός ψυχοεκπαιδευτικού προγράμματος παρέμβασης για την ενίσχυση της γονεϊκής σοφίας (Μέρος δεύτερο διατριβής). Για να επιτευχθεί ο σκοπός αυτός πραγματοποιήθηκαν συνολικά τέσσερις μελέτες. Η πρώτη μελέτη ήταν θεωρητική και ως στόχο είχε την ανάπτυξη ενός μοντέλου για τη γονεϊκή σοφία. Η εννοιολόγηση της γονεϊκής σοφίας και ο προσδιορισμός των διαστάσεων που την απαρτίζουν βασίστηκε στην ανασκόπηση, την επιλογή και τη σύνθεση έκδηλων θεωριών της σοφίας. Σύμφωνα με τα ευρήματα της μελέτης, η γονεϊκή σοφία αποτελεί χαρακτηριστικό γνώρισμα των γονέων και συνίσταται από τέσσερις αλληλοσχετιζόμενες διαστάσεις: τον αναστοχασμό, την αλλαγή οπτικής, τη ρύθμιση συναισθημάτων και τη μάθηση από τις εμπειρίες. Η δεύτερη κατά σειρά μελέτη ως στόχο είχε την εμπειρική επαλήθευση του μοντέλου γονεϊκής σοφίας, μέσα από την κατασκευή μιας κλίμακας για τη μέτρηση της γονεϊκής σοφίας και τον προκαταρκτικό έλεγχο των ψυχομετρικών της ιδιοτήτων. Η επιλογή των τελικών δηλώσεων της κλίμακας και ο έλεγχος των ψυχομετρικών της ιδιοτήτων πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη χορήγηση της κλίμακας μέτρησης της γονεϊκής σοφίας, καθώς και άλλων κλιμάκων επιλεγομένων για την αξιολόγηση της συγκλίνουσας και αποκλίνουσας εγκυρότητας της κλίμακας, σε ένα συνολικό δείγμα 137 γονέων [42 άνδρες (30.7%) και 95 γυναίκες (69.3%)], ηλικίας 24 έως 83 ετών (Μ.Ο. = 46.63, Τ.Α. = 11.03). Τα αποτελέσματα της μελέτης επιβεβαίωσαν τη δομική εγκυρότητα και την αξιοπιστία εσωτερικής συνοχής της κλίμακας. Επίσης, επιβεβαιώθηκαν όλες οι προβλέψεις που αφορούσαν στη συγκλίνουσα και αποκλίνουσα εγκυρότητα της κλίμακας. Συγκεκριμένα, η κλίμακα μέτρησης της γονεϊκής σοφίας (Κλίμακα Γονεϊκής Σοφίας) συσχετίστηκε θετικά με τις κλίμακες μέτρησης της προσωπικής ανάπτυξης (Psychological Well-Being Scales-Personal Growth scale: Ryff, 1989), της δεκτικότητας στην εμπειρία (NEO-Five Factor Inventory-Openness subscale: Costa & McCrae, 1992), της γονεϊκής αυτοαποτελεσματικότητας (Parenting Sense of Competence Scale-Efficacy subscale: Johnston & Mash, 1989), της γονεϊκής ικανοποίησης (Kansas Parental Satisfaction Scale: James et al., 1985), της γονεϊκής θέρμης (Parenting Behaviours and Dimensions Questionnaire-Emotional Warmth subscale: Reid et al., 2015) και της σοφίας (Brief Wisdom Screening Scale: Glück et al., 2013), ενώ παρουσίασε μια μη σημαντική και μια χαμηλή συσχέτιση με τις κλίμακες μέτρησης της τάσης για κοινωνικά επιθυμητές απαντήσεις, διαχείριση εντυπώσεων και εξαπάτηση του εαυτού, αντίστοιχα (Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding-Short form: Hart et al., 2015). Στόχο της τρίτης μελέτης αποτέλεσε η επικύρωση των ψυχομετρικών ιδιοτήτων της κλίμακας με τη χρήση ενός ανεξάρτητου ερευνητικού δείγματος. Έναν επιπλέον στόχο της εν λόγω μελέτης αποτέλεσε η διερεύνηση της σχέσης της γονεϊκής σοφίας με τις συναισθηματικές και συμπεριφορικές δυσκολίες στα παιδιά και τους εφήβους. Η συλλογή των δεδομένων έγινε με τη χορήγηση του ίδιου σχεδόν συνόλου ερωτηματολογίων με αυτά που χορηγήθηκαν στην προγενέστερη μελέτη – προστέθηκε σε αυτά ένα νέο ερωτηματολόγιο για τη μέτρηση των συμπεριφορικών και συναισθηματικών δυσκολιών των παιδιών/ εφήβων (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: Goodman, 1997) – σε ένα δείγμα 312 γονέων [147 άνδρες (47.1%) και 165 γυναίκες (52.9%)], ηλικίας 25 έως 83 ετών (Μ.Ο. = 45.35, Τ.Α. = 10.20). Σε συμφωνία με τις αρχικές προβλέψεις, επιβεβαιώθηκε η δομή των τεσσάρων παραγόντων της κλίμακας (αναστοχασμός, αλλαγή οπτικής, ρύθμιση συναισθημάτων και μάθηση από τις εμπειρίες) και η αξιοπιστία εσωτερικής συνοχής της κλίμακας ήταν καλή. Επιπρόσθετα, τα ευρήματα αναφορικά με τις συσχετίσεις της κλίμακας με τις κλίμακες μέτρησης της προσωπικής ανάπτυξης, της δεκτικότητας στην εμπειρία, της γονεϊκής αυτοαποτελεσματικότητας, της γονεϊκής ικανοποίησης, της γονεϊκής θέρμης, της σοφίας και της τάσης για κοινωνικά επιθυμητές απαντήσεις υποστήριξαν πλήρως τη συγκλίνουσα και αποκλίνουσα εγκυρότητα της κλίμακας. Τέλος, βρέθηκε μια αρνητική συσχέτιση μεταξύ της γονεϊκής σοφίας και των συναισθηματικών και συμπεριφορικών δυσκολιών στα παιδιά/ τους εφήβους. Στόχο της τέταρτης μελέτης της παρούσας διατριβής αποτέλεσε η ανάπτυξη, εφαρμογή και αξιολόγηση ενός ψυχοεκπαιδευτικού προγράμματος παρέμβασης στη γονεϊκή σοφία. Το πρόγραμμα παρέμβασης, μια αυτοδιαχειριζόμενη ψυχοεκπαιδευτική παρέμβαση διεξαγόμενη μέσω ηλεκτρονικού ταχυδρομείου με τη χρήση φορμών της Google, εφαρμόστηκε σε σύνολο 101 γονέων [47 (46.5%) ομάδα παρέμβασης και 54 (53.5%) ομάδα ελέγχου], ηλικίας 29 έως 65 ετών (Μ.Ο. = 38.13, Τ.Α. = 6.53). Για την αξιολόγηση της αποτελεσματικότητας του προγράμματος παρέμβασης οι γονείς της ομάδας παρέμβασης και της ομάδας ελέγχου συμπλήρωσαν πριν και μετά την παρέμβαση την Κλίμακα Γονεϊκής Σοφίας και ένα ερωτηματολόγιο μέτρησης της γονεϊκής τυπολογίας (Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire: Robinson et al., 2001). Μετά τη λήξη της παρέμβασης, οι γονείς της ομάδας παρέμβασης σημείωσαν στατιστικώς σημαντική αύξηση στα επίπεδα της γονεϊκής σοφίας και των διαστάσεών της (αναστοχασμός, αλλαγή οπτικής, ρύθμιση συναισθημάτων, μάθηση από τις εμπειρίες), συγκριτικά με τους γονείς της ομάδας ελέγχου, στους οποίους δε σημειώθηκε αντίστοιχη μεταβολή. Επίσης, βρέθηκε ότι η συμμετοχή στο πρόγραμμα παρέμβασης οδηγεί, συγκριτικά με την ομάδα ελέγχου, σε αύξηση της βαθμολογίας στον υποστηρικτικό γονεϊκό τύπο και μείωση της βαθμολογίας στον αυταρχικό και τον επιτρεπτικό γονεϊκό τύπο. Επιπρόσθετα, η αποτελεσματικότητα του προγράμματος παρέμβασης ως προς τη γονεϊκή σοφία και τις διαστάσεις της, καθώς και ως προς τον υποστηρικτικό γονεϊκό τύπο και τον αυταρχικό γονεϊκό τύπο διατηρήθηκε ένα μήνα μετά τη λήξη του, σύμφωνα με την επαναληπτική μέτρηση που πραγματοποιήθηκε στους γονείς της ομάδας παρέμβασης. Συμπερασματικά, στο σύνολό τους, τα ευρήματα της παρούσας διατριβής υποδεικνύουν ότι (α) η γονεϊκή σοφία αποτελεί μια πολυδιάστατη έννοια, η οποία απαρτίζεται από τέσσερις αλληλοσχετιζόμενες διαστάσεις (αναστοχασμός, αλλαγή οπτικής, ρύθμιση συναισθημάτων και μάθηση από τις εμπειρίες), (β) η Κλίμακα Γονεϊκής Σοφίας αποτελεί ένα αξιόπιστο και έγκυρο εργαλείο μέτρησης της γονεϊκής σοφίας, (γ) υπάρχει μια σημαντική σύνδεση μεταξύ της γονεϊκής σοφίας και μεταβλητών αποτελεσματικής γονεϊκότητας (γονεϊκή τυπολογία, γονεϊκή αυτοαποτελεσματικότητα, γονεϊκή ικανοποίηση, γονεϊκή θέρμη, συναισθηματικές και συμπεριφορικές δυσκολίες στα παιδιά/ τους εφήβους), και (δ) η γονεϊκή σοφία ως χαρακτηριστικό γνώρισμα των γονέων μπορεί να μεταβληθεί μέσω στοχευμένης ψυχοεκπαιδευτικής παρέμβασης. Τα ευρήματα της διατριβής συζητούνται ως προς τη συνεισφορά τους στη θεωρία και την έρευνα στα πεδία της γονεϊκότητας και της σοφίας, καθώς και ως προς τις πρακτικές τους προεκτάσεις στην εφαρμογή της γονεϊκής συμβουλευτικής (στο σχολικό ή άλλο πλαίσιο). Επίσης, συζητούνται οι περιορισμοί των τεσσάρων μελετών της διατριβής και διατυπώνονται προτάσεις για μελλοντική έρευνα.

Engaging Parents of Lower-Socioeconomic Positions in Internet- and Mobile-Based Interventions for Youth Mental Health: A Qualitative Investigation

Growing literature supports the use of internet- and mobile-based interventions (IMIs) targeting parenting behaviours to prevent child and adolescent mental health difficulties. However, parents of lower-socioeconomic positions (SEP) are underserved by these interventions. To avoid contributing to existing mental health inequalities, additional efforts are needed to understand the engagement needs of lower-SEP parents. This study qualitatively explored lower-SEP parents’ perspectives on how program features could facilitate their engagement in IMIs for youth mental health. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 16 lower-SEP parents of children aged 0–18 to identify important program features. Participants were mostly female (81.3%) and aged between 26 and 56 years. Transcriptions were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. Twenty-three modifiable program features important to lower-SEP parents’ engagement in IMIs were identified. These features aligned with one of three overarching themes explaining their importance to parents’ willingness to engage: (1) It will help my child; (2) I feel like I can do it; (3) It can easily fit into my life. The relative importance of program features varied based on parents’ specific social and economic challenges. These findings offer initial directions for program developers in optimising IMIs to overcome barriers to engagement for lower-SEP parents.

Short-term outcomes of the Therapist-assisted Online Parenting Strategies intervention for parents of adolescents treated for anxiety and/or depression: A single-arm double-baseline trial

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate whether the Therapist-assisted Online Parenting Strategies programme increased parenting behaviours known to be supportive of adolescents experiencing anxiety and/or depression. Secondary parenting outcomes of parental self-efficacy, parental accommodation, carer burden, parent–adolescent attachment, family functioning and parent distress were also examined, along with adolescent outcomes of anxiety and depression symptoms, suicidal ideation and sleep. Method: Seventy-one parents (94.4% females) and their adolescents (73.2% females) aged 12–18 years (Mean = 15.02, SD = 1.56) being treated for depression and/or anxiety in Australia were recruited into a single-arm double-baseline open-label trial. Parents received Therapist-assisted Online Parenting Strategies, which comprised up to nine web-based modules each supplemented with coaching sessions via videoconferencing. Outcomes were analysed using latent growth curve modelling to determine if changes to outcomes at post-intervention (4 month post-second baseline) exceeded changes between two baselines measured 1 month apart. Results: Sixty-five parents (91.6%) completed at least one module of the online parenting intervention and on average received nine coaching sessions (SD = 2). Parenting behaviours targeted by Therapist-assisted Online Parenting Strategies improved at post-intervention (Cohen’s d = 1.16, 95% confidence interval [0.78, 1.51]). Parent-reported parental self-efficacy and parent−adolescent attachment increased (Cohen’s d = 1.44 [1.05, 1.82] and 0.39 [0.05, 0.74], respectively), while impairments to family functioning and parent distress decreased (Cohen’s d = −0.51 [−0.86, −0.16] and −0.84 [−1.23, −0.44], respectively). Changes to adolescent anxiety, depression and sleep were not significant. Conclusion: The Therapist-assisted Online Parenting Strategies intervention improved self-reported parenting behaviours, parental self-efficacy, parent levels of distress, parent–adolescent attachment, and family functioning in parents with adolescents being treated for anxiety and/or depression. However, significant changes in adolescent mental health and sleep outcomes at post-intervention were not observed. The usefulness of a therapist-supported online parenting programme in addressing a service gap for parents seeking professional help is indicated. Trial Registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry Number (ACTRN) 12618000290291, prospectively registered on 26 February 2018; https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=368031

Parental characteristics and offspring mental health and related outcomes: a systematic review of genetically informative literature

Various parental characteristics, including psychiatric disorders and parenting behaviours, are associated with offspring mental health and related outcomes in observational studies. The application of genetically informative designs is crucial to disentangle the role of genetic and environmental factors (as well as gene–environment correlation) underlying these observations, as parents provide not only the rearing environment but also transmit 50% of their genes to their offspring. This article first provides an overview of behavioural genetics, matched-pair, and molecular genetics designs that can be applied to investigate parent–offspring associations, whilst modelling or accounting for genetic effects. We then present a systematic literature review of genetically informative studies investigating associations between parental characteristics and offspring mental health and related outcomes, published since 2014. The reviewed studies provide reliable evidence of genetic transmission of depression, criminal behaviour, educational attainment, and substance use. These results highlight that studies that do not use genetically informative designs are likely to misinterpret the mechanisms underlying these parent–offspring associations. After accounting for genetic effects, several parental characteristics, including parental psychiatric traits and parenting behaviours, were associated with offspring internalising problems, externalising problems, educational attainment, substance use, and personality through environmental pathways. Overall, genetically informative designs to study intergenerational transmission prove valuable for the understanding of individual differences in offspring mental health and related outcomes, and mechanisms of transmission within families.

A Systematic Review of Parenting in Singapore: Insights to the Culture-Specific Functions of Styles and Practices

Cross-cultural studies on parenting have identified cultural nuances that may impact the form and functions of parenting styles and practices in different contexts. This systematic review is undertaken with the aim of identifying such nuances in an under-studied culture (Singapore), as a starting point to understand and compare the forms and functions of parenting in Asia and beyond. A review of 27 studies showed that optimal parenting styles and practices were associated with positive child development outcomes in Singapore, similar to what has been observed in Western contexts. However, some parenting behaviours that were typically considered to be sub-optimal were not invariably related to poorer child outcomes in Singapore, indicating that there may be protective cultural factors related to the interpretation of parental control. Adopting an emic approach to parenting research would deepen our understanding of the cultural generality and specificity of practices, ensuring that the design and implementation of parenting interventions are culturally appropriate and effective.