Metacognition and the spacing effect: the role of repetition, feedback, and instruction on judgments of learning for massed and spaced rehearsal

Theories of metamemory are primarily concerned with mechanisms that improve memory; they do not account for processes that reduce accessibility of unwanted information, as in intentional forgetting. The chapter proposes that introducing separate terms like metaremembering and metaforgetting highlights the distinction between remembering and forgetting as different dimensions of memory. It reviews empirical evidence from directed forgetting studies. List-method directed forgetting depends on engaging active forgetting strategies, indicating the importance of control in successful intentional forgetting. The decision to engage in forgetting strategies, in turn, is affected by memory monitoring as evidenced through preexisting confidence about one’s own memory ability, as well as judgments of learning solicited during the task. In item-method directed forgetting, participants control rehearsal by selectively retrieving earlier items believed to be more memorable, even when such beliefs are illusory. The chapter discusses the role of metacognitive monitoring and control in these active forms of forgetting.

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Dynamic Integrative Synaptic Plasticity Explains the Spacing Effect in the Transition from Short- to Long-Term Memory

Neural Computation ◽

10.1162/neco_a_01227 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 31 (11) ◽

pp. 2212-2251 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Terry Elliott

Keyword(s):

Synaptic Plasticity ◽

Mapk Pathway ◽

Spacing Effect ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Pass Filter ◽

Low Pass Filter ◽

Term Memory ◽

Low Pass

Repeated stimuli that are spaced apart in time promote the transition from short- to long-term memory, while massing repetitions together does not. Previously, we showed that a model of integrative synaptic plasticity, in which plasticity induction signals are integrated by a low-pass filter before plasticity is expressed, gives rise to a natural timescale at which to repeat stimuli, hinting at a partial account of this spacing effect. The account was only partial because the important role of neuromodulation was not considered. We now show that by extending the model to allow dynamic integrative synaptic plasticity, the model permits synapses to robustly discriminate between spaced and massed repetition protocols, suppressing the response to massed stimuli while maintaining that to spaced stimuli. This is achieved by dynamically coupling the filter decay rate to neuromodulatory signaling in a very simple model of the signaling cascades downstream from cAMP production. In particular, the model's parameters may be interpreted as corresponding to the duration and amplitude of the waves of activity in the MAPK pathway. We identify choices of parameters and repetition times for stimuli in this model that optimize the ability of synapses to discriminate between spaced and massed repetition protocols. The model is very robust to reasonable changes around these optimal parameters and times, but for large changes in parameters, the model predicts that massed and spaced stimuli cannot be distinguished or that the responses to both patterns are suppressed. A model of dynamic integrative synaptic plasticity therefore explains the spacing effect under normal conditions and also predicts its breakdown under abnormal conditions.

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The Effects of Exercise and Alternating Task Modules in Skill Acquisition

Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting ◽

10.1177/154193129604002111 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 40 (21) ◽

pp. 1097-1101

Author(s):

Barry P. Goettl ◽

Wayne L. Shebilske ◽

Cathy Connolly-Gomez ◽

Linda Robertson-Schulé

Keyword(s):

Problem Solving ◽

Skill Acquisition ◽

Spacing Effect ◽

Flight Simulator ◽

Moderate Exercise ◽

Retention Performance ◽

Implicit Processes ◽

Massed Practice ◽

Word Problem Solving

One class of theories of the spacing effect suggests that arousal may inhibit learning during massed practice. The goal of this study was explore the role of exercise on the spacing effect. Participants practiced three complex tasks (i.e., Space Fortress, algebra word problems, and a desk-top flight simulator) under four training conditions. Participants trained under massed or alternating task modules regimes, with or without moderate exercise. Results indicated that alternating tasks enhanced acquisition and retention performance on Space Fortress. In addition, exercise inhibited retention performance. These same trends were obtained for algebra word problem solving and for a desktop flight simulator task. These findings replicate previous studies showing an advantage for alternating task modules and challenge theories suggesting that the spacing effect is the result of deficient processing due to lower arousal level. Results suggest that exercise may reduce mental rehearsal or implicit processes that alternating task modules promote.

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What is the role of affect in the spacing effect?

Memory & Cognition ◽

10.3758/bf03213469 ◽

1983 ◽

Vol 11 (2) ◽

pp. 144-151 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

David G. Elmes ◽

Craig J. Dye ◽

N. J. Herdelin

Keyword(s):

Spacing Effect

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ІЛЮЗІЯ ЗНАННЯ ЯК ПРОБЛЕМА В НАВЧАЛЬНІЙ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ СТУДЕНТІВ

Psychology of Personality ◽

10.15330/ps.6.1.260-269 ◽

1970 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

pp. 260-269

Author(s):

Марія Августюк

Keyword(s):

Scientific Literature ◽

Negative Impact ◽

Judgments Of Learning ◽

Learning Activities ◽

Educational Activity ◽

Learning Assessment ◽

Learning Material ◽

Cue Familiarity ◽

Illusion Of Knowing

У статті здійснено аналіз ілюзії знання як проблеми у навчальній діяльності студентів. Наведена характеристика основних чинників ілюзії знання. Виявлено, що надмірна впевненість у розумінні інформації та виконанні завдань, в основі якої лежать некомпетентність суб’єктів, когнітивний оптимізм та вплив соціального оточення, є однією з основних причин негативного впливу ілюзії знання на навчальну діяльність. Іншими можливими варіантами пояснення ілюзії знання також можуть бути швидкість винесення передбачень, знайомість інформації за підказками, доступність інформації, легкість виконання тощо. Також проаналізовано ефект недостатньої впевненості та ефект складності-легкості, що залежать як від ступеня складності завдання, так і від відведеного на виконання часу. Окреслено роль ілюзії знання у контексті основних теорій метапізнання (зокрема, звернено увагу на Брунсвікську теорію впевненості та подано опис моделей виникнення надмірної впевненості). Крім того, описано наявні у науковій літературі з цієї проблеми можливі шляхи нівелювання негативного впливу ілюзії знання на ефективність навчальної діяльності, серед яких відзначено сприятливий вплив здатності студентів абстрагуватися від уже знаного навчального матеріалу, повторного опрацювання матеріалу, зворотного зв’язку, відкладених суджень після виконання завдання, оцінювання інформації перед формулюванням суджень про вивчене, самоопитування щодо істинності власного знання тощо. The article analyzes the illusion of knowing as a problem in educational activity of students. Characteristics of the main factors influencing the illusion of knowing are given. It is found that overconfidence in understanding the information and solving the problems based on incompetence of individuals, cognitive optimism and influence of social environment, is one of the main reasons for the negative impact of the illusion of knowing on learning activities. Other possible variations explaining the illusion of knowing may also be the speed of predictions, cue familiarity, availability of information, ease of processing, etc. The effect of underconfidence and hard-easy effect that depend on the complexity of the task and on spent time are also analyzed. The role of the illusion of knowing in the context of the main theories of metacognition is outlined (in particular, the attention is drawn to the Brunswikian Theory of Confidence and to the description of the models of overconfidence). Moreover, there is the description of the available in scientific literature on this issue possible ways of leveling the negative impact of the illusion of knowing on the effectiveness of learning activities, including the favorable impact of the ability of students to ignore the already well-known learning material, re-processing the material, feedback, delayed judgments of learning, assessment of information before making judgments of learning, self-questioning about the truthfulness of knowledge and so on.

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