Effects of responsive caregiving and learning opportunities during pre-school ages on the association of early adversities and adolescent human capital: an analysis of birth cohorts in two middle-income countries

SummaryBackgroundGrowth faltering has been associated with poor intellectual performance. The relative strengths of associations between growth in early and in later childhood remain underexplored. We examined the association between growth in childhood and adolescence and adult human capital in five low- or middle-income countries (LMICs).MethodsWe analyzed data from six prospective birth cohorts of five LMICs (Brazil, Guatemala, India, the Philippines, and South Africa). We assessed the associations of measures of height and relative weight at four ages (birth, at around age 2 years, mid-childhood (MC), adulthood), with two dimension of adult human capital (schooling attainment and IQ).FindingsIn site- and sex-pooled analyses, size at birth and linear growth from birth to around 2 years of age were positively associated with schooling attainment and adult IQ. Linear growth from age 2 years to MC and from MC to adulthood was not associated with higher school attainment or IQ. Change in relative weight in early childhood was not associated with either outcome. Relative weight in MC and in adulthood were inversely associated with schooling attainment but were not associated with adult IQ.InterpretationLinear growth in the first 1,000 days is a predictor of schooling attainment and IQ in adulthood in LMICs. Linear growth in later periods was not associated with either of these outcomes. Changes in relative weight had inconsistent association with schooling and IQ in adulthood.FundingBill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1164115)Research in contextEvidence before this studyEarly life growth faltering has been associated with poor cognitive and intellectual performance in childhood and poorer schooling outcomes in children and adults. There is a paucity of data about how growth in specific age intervals over the course of childhood and adolescence relates to attained schooling and adult cognitive performance.We conducted a literature search using the terms (growth [Title/Abstract]) AND ((school [Title/Abstract] OR schooling [Title/Abstract]) AND (intelligence [Title/Abstract] OR IQ [Title/Abstract]) OR (human capital [Title/Abstract]) in Pubmed. The search yielded 536 publications from 1965 to 2020. We screened titles and selected 31 publications that included linear growth and our outcomes of interest, namely school attainment and intelligence quotient (IQ). Additionally, we checked reference lists of selected articles and identified eleven papers that were not displayed in the initial electronic query. We therefore reviewed 42 abstracts and identified 24 unique studies conducted in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). Fourteen of them investigated the association of birth size and/or early-life size with schooling or IQ, or with both outcomes during childhood. Three studies investigated the association between linear growth in early childhood and schooling and intelligence in adults, one studied the association between early-life undernutrition and IQ in early adulthood and another six publications investigated the association between growth and school attainment in adults. Economists have also studied the relationship between stunting or linear growth and schooling in LMICs, but to our knowledge not the relative importance of growth during specific age intervals.Added value of this studyThis is an analysis of the associations between child and adolescent growth and two dimensions of human capital (schooling attainment and IQ) in adulthood in six birth cohorts from five LMICs. The evidence of long-term associations of linear growth with adult IQ is scarce and the few published studies have analyzed data from a single country. In the present study, we found that size at birth and linear growth from birth to around 2 years of age were positively associated with both schooling and IQ in adulthood. Linear growth between early and mid-childhood (MC)was not associated with higher school attainment or IQ in adjusted models. Linear growth from MC to adulthood was not associated with IQ in men or women, and was inversely associated with schooling attainment in women only. Change in relative weight in early childhood was positively associated with schooling attainment only in minimally adjusted models. Relative weight measures in MC and adulthood were inversely associated with schooling attainment. Change in relative weight between MC and adulthood was not associated with adult IQ.Implications of all the available evidenceWe confirmed in multiple cohorts that birth size and linear growth from birth to age 2 years are predictors of schooling attainment and adult IQ. Linear growth in early life was the strongest predictor of these two human capital dimensions in adulthood among individuals in LMICs. We did not find evidence that supports the notion that linear growth in adolescence contributes to a better cognitive performance in adulthood. Thus, our results inform the more effective timing of nutritional and other interventions to improve linear growth and human capital in the long-term.

Download Full-text

Supporting Child Development Through Parenting Interventions in Low- to Middle-Income Countries: An Updated Systematic Review

Frontiers in Public Health ◽

10.3389/fpubh.2021.671988 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 ◽

Author(s):

Linlin Zhang ◽

Derrick Ssewanyana ◽

Marie-Claude Martin ◽

Stephen Lye ◽

Greg Moran ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Child Development ◽

Learning Opportunities ◽

Population Characteristics ◽

Effect Sizes ◽

Parenting Interventions ◽

Social Emotional ◽

Middle Income ◽

Developmental Potential ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Low And Middle Income

Background: Over 250 million children in low- and middle-income countries are at risk of not achieving their fullest developmental potential due to co-occurring risks such as poor nutrition and inadequate learning opportunities. Early intervention programs integrating the aspects of nurturing care, that is, good health, adequate nutrition, safety and security, responsive caregiving, and learning opportunities, may ameliorate against the negative impact of these adverse conditions.Methods: This meta-analytic review updates the evidence base of parenting interventions comprising stimulation and responsive caregiving components on developmental outcomes for children under age 2 years in low- and middle-income countries. It also describes and assesses the moderation effects of population characteristics and implementation features on the intervention effectiveness. Studies were identified based on previous systematic reviews and an updated literature search in eight databases and the gray literature up to December 2020. A random-effect model was used to explore the pooled effect sizes accounted for by the intervention for developmental outcome of cognition, language, motor, and social-emotional capacities. Exploratory moderation analyses were also conducted.Results: Twenty-one randomized controlled trials representing over 10,400 children from 12 low- and middle-income countries and regions across three continents (Africa, Latin America, and Asia) were identified. The interventions showed overall small-to-moderate effects on children's cognitive development (ES = 0.44; 95% CI = [0.30, 0.57]); language development (ES = 0.33; 95% CI = [0.18, 0.49]); and motor skills (ES = 0.21; 95% CI = [0.10, 0.32]). The overall effect on social-emotional development was non-significant (ES = 0.17; 95% CI = [−0.01, 0.34]). Effect sizes (ES) varied significantly across the studies. Parenting programs that targeted vulnerable groups, including rural communities and caregivers with lower education levels, had more significant effects on children's development. Group sessions (vs. individual visits) and high program dose (≥12 sessions) were also associated with stronger effects on child development. Further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of the workforce and training on programmatic outcomes.Conclusion: The findings indicate that parenting interventions that encourage nurturing care are effective in improving the early development of children, especially among vulnerable populations. We discuss opportunities to strengthen the implementation of research-based parenting interventions in such contexts.

Download Full-text

Family Socio-economic Status, Mother’s Psychosocial Skills, and Children’s Human Capital: Evidence from Four Low- and Middle-income Countries

Growing Up in Poverty ◽

10.1057/9781137404039_3 ◽

2014 ◽

pp. 51-69 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Andreas Georgiadis ◽

Priscila Hermida

Keyword(s):

Human Capital ◽

Economic Status ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Socio Economic Status ◽

Psychosocial Skills ◽

Low And Middle Income

Download Full-text

Home- and center-based learning opportunities for preschoolers in low- and middle-income countries

Children and Youth Services Review ◽

10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.02.021 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 88 ◽

pp. 44-56 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Dana Charles McCoy ◽

Carmel Salhi ◽

Hirokazu Yoshikawa ◽

Maureen Black ◽

Pia Britto ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Learning Opportunities ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Low And Middle Income

Download Full-text

Human Capital and Wage Income Gains of Scaling-Up Maternal Prenatal Nutrition Interventions in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzaa053_092 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 887-887

Author(s):

Nandita Perumal ◽

Mia Blakstad ◽

Goodarz Danaei ◽

Gunther Fink ◽

Mark Lambiris ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Human Capital ◽

Birth Outcomes ◽

Low Birthweight ◽

Maternal Nutrition ◽

Scaling Up ◽

Nutrition Intervention ◽

Nutrition Interventions ◽

Middle Income ◽

Prenatal Nutrition ◽

Middle Income Countries

Abstract Objectives Scaling-up nutrition interventions during pregnancy may provide human capital gains by lowering the risk of adverse birth outcomes associated with reduced long-term socioeconomic outcomes. We estimated gains in years of schooling and lifetime wages of scaling up prenatal maternal nutrition interventions for a 137 low- and middle-income countries. Methods Through a comprehensive review of the literature, we identified four prenatal maternal nutrition interventions with convincing-level of evidence for improving birth outcomes: prenatal multiple micronutrient supplements (MMS), calcium supplements, iron-folic acid supplements (IFA), and balanced protein energy supplements (BEP) among underweight pregnant women (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2). Effect sizes for intervention impact were derived from systematic reviews and random-effects meta-analysis. We focused on low birthweight (LBW) and preterm birth (PTB) as primary birth outcomes. We used the 2015 LBW and PTB prevalence estimates to calculate country-specific absolute reductions attributable to scaling-up a given prenatal nutrition invention. We then used an effect size based on a de novo review of the economics literature to quantify gains in schooling and lifetime wages due to reductions in LBW/PTB under two hypothetical scale-up scenarios of 50% and 90% coverage. Results For each country, returns on schooling and lifetime wages were estimated for scaling-up each prenatal nutrition intervention. For example, in Bangladesh, scaling-up IFA supplements from current coverage of 26% to 90% was estimated to reduce LBW prevalence by 3.2% contributing to a predicted increase of 0.11 million school years and US$153 million in wages per birth cohort. Similarly, scaling-up MMS, calcium supplements, and BEP to 90% coverage was predicted to increase schooling by 0.25, 0.17, and 0.07 million years, and wages by US$338, US$223, and US$97 million, respectively, per birth cohort. Global, regional, and national-level estimates for schooling and wage gains for each nutrition intervention will be presented. Conclusions Our findings indicate that scaling-up prenatal maternal nutrition interventions will contribute to substantial population-level increases in human capital, particularly in countries with a high burden of low birthweight or preterm birth. Funding Sources Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Download Full-text

The Dynamic Relation between Technology Adoption, Technology Innovation, Human Capital and Economy: Comparison of Lower-Middle-Income Countries

Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems ◽

10.7906/indecs.17.1.15 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 17 (1) ◽

pp. 146-161 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Shafaq Salam ◽

Muhammad Hafeez ◽

Muhammad Tariq Mahmood ◽

Kashif Iqbal ◽

Kashifa Akbar

Keyword(s):

Human Capital ◽

Technology Adoption ◽

Technology Innovation ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Dynamic Relation

Download Full-text

Innovations in achieving sustainable economic performance under income inequality

Marketing and Management of Innovations ◽

10.21272/mmi.2021.2-12 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (2) ◽

pp. 146-154

Author(s):

Inna Cabelkova ◽

Manuela Tvaronaviciene ◽

Wadim Strielkowski

Keyword(s):

Economic Growth ◽

Human Capital ◽

Income Inequality ◽

Economic Performance ◽

Financial Services ◽

Developing Economies ◽

Well Being ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

The Impact

The negative effect of income inequality on economic growth represents a topic that constitutes a broad topic of research in the standard economic theory. One of the immediate consequences of income inequality is diminished consumption. Many «poor» customers cannot provide sufficient demand for the producers, causing overproduction that might lead to an economic crisis. It constitutes a problem because sustainable economic performance needs to be achieved under the conditions of income inequality. Reducing social and economic inequality in countries is an essential step towards ensuring that no one is left behind. It is also part of the 10th Sustainable Development Goal aimed to reduce it by 2030. Inequality is based on the income distribution between the top 1% and the bottom 99% of households in any given country. The degree of inequality could play a beneficial role if it is driven by market forces and is associated with incentives to increase growth. In developing and emerging countries, greater equality and improvements in living standards are needed to enable populations to flourish. Inequality reduction is one of the most critical steps a government could take to improve the well-being of its population. The income inequality growth increases human capital in poor countries and reduces it in high and middle-income countries. In poorer countries, it increases them, but in higher – and middle-income countries, it reduces them. Income inequality could be reduced by improving human capital and general skill levels, correcting labor-market policies, and making better use of financial services. In turn, sustainable economic growth could reverse the negative effects of inequality, reducing the need for high-wage and higher-earning households. Thus, it provides higher economic growth. This paper discusses three ways to circumvent the impact of decreasing consumption on economic growth adopted in developing economies over the last fifty years, such as increasing exports, providing loans for consumption, and printing new money. The findings showed that none of these methods seem to be sustainable in the long run. Thus novel and innovative mechanisms that would allow our economy to reduce inequality are necessary and need to be put into place.

Download Full-text

Social Mobility and Human Capital in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

10.1093/oso/9780192896858.003.0013 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 301-350

Author(s):

Jere R. Behrman

Keyword(s):

Human Capital ◽

Social Mobility ◽

Cognitive Skills ◽

Policy Implications ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Socioemotional Skills ◽

Low And Middle Income ◽

Positive Impacts

Parental human capital and endowments may affect children’s human capital, which in turn may affect children’s income and thus social mobility. This chapter focuses on what we know about these links in low- and middle-income countries. It starts with definitions of human capital and endowments and simple frameworks for guiding summaries of what we know and do not know about these links. It discusses determinants of children’s human capital in the form of cognitive skills, socioemotional skills and health, which pertain directly to some indicators of social mobility; reviews estimates of impacts of these forms of human capital, which pertain to some other indicators of social mobility, such as income; and concludes with a summary suggesting some positive impacts of parental human capital and endowments on social mobility in low- and middle-income countries, policy implications, and gaps in the literature pertaining to both data and methodology.

Download Full-text