AbstractThree methods—tube chambers (ventilated and unventilated), petri dish chambers, and field cages—were used to evaluate the toxicity of deltamethrin, trichlorfon, and methoxychlor deposits on alfalfa, Medicago sativa L., to 1- to 7-day-old alfalfa leafcutter bees, Megachile rotundata (F.), 24 and 48 h after exposure. In unventilated tube chambers, all three insecticides were significantly toxic to male bees after 24 and 48 h, but only deltamethrin and trichlorfon were significantly toxic to female bees after 24 h. In ventilated tube chambers, only deltamethrin was significantly toxic by contact and then only to male bees at 24 h. Significant vapor action was observed only for trichlorfon and only in unventilated tube chambers. By the petri dish method, only deltamethrin caused significant mortality to male and female bees. However, bee mortality increased significantly between 24 and 48 h. By the field cage method, there was no significant difference in mortality among treatments and controls within the 24- and 48-h evaluations. Bee mortality in the controls was much higher in the petri dish and field cage methods than in either of the two variations of the tube chamber method. The three evaluation methods are compared and the need for a standardized laboratory evaluation procedure is discussed.
A multiscale assessment of Red-tailed Hawk reproductive success relative to urban density and habitat type