River basins and river characteristics are controlled in part by their tectonic setting, in part by climate, and increasingly by human activity. River basins are defined by the tectonic and topographic features of a continent, which determine the general pattern of water drainage. If a major river drains to the ocean, its mouth is usually fixed by some enduring geologic structure, such as a graben, a downwarp, or a suture between two crustal blocks. The largest river basins constitute drainage areas of extensive low-lying portions of Earth’s crust, often involving tectonic downwarps. The magnitude of river flow is determined by the balance between precipitation and evaporation, summed over the drainage area. Seasonality of flow and water storage within any basin are determined by the seasonality of precipitation in excess of evaporation, modified in some regions by water stored in snow packs and released by melting, and by water stored in wetlands, lakes, and reservoirs. Increasingly the flows of rivers are influenced by human land use and engineering works, including dams, but in South America these anthropogenic influences are generally less intense and widespread than in North America, Europe, and much of Asia. Thus the major rivers of South America can be viewed in the context of global and regional tectonics and climatology. For reference, figure 5.1 outlines South America’s three largest river basins—the Orinoco, Amazon, and Paraguay-Paraná systems—while figure 5.2 shows the locations of rivers referred to in the text against a background of the continent’s density of population per square kilometer. The geologic history of South America has bequeathed to the continent a number of structural elements that are relevant to the form and behavior of its three major river systems. These structural elements are (1) the Andes; (2) a series of foreland basins, approximately 500 km wide immediately east of the Andes and extending southward from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Chaco-Paraná basin, where the crust is depressed by the weight of the Andes and the sediment derived from the mountains; (3) the Guiana and Brazilian shields reflecting Precambrian cratons and orogenic belts of mostly crystalline metamorphic rocks, partly covered with flat-lying sedimentary rocks and deeply weathered regolith; and (4) the Central Amazon Basin, a large cratonic downwarp with some graben structures dating back to early Paleozoic time, which runs generally east-west between the two shields, connecting the foreland basins to the west with a graben that localizes the Amazon estuary at the Atlantic coast.
A close relative of the Amazon river dolphin in marine deposits: a new Iniidae from the late Miocene of Angola
