Salaries and Race in Professional Baseball: Discrimination 10 Years Later

A series of multiple regression analyses using the most recent publicly available data on the salaries of veteran hitters in major league baseball uncovers little evidence of economic discrimination by race. Comparisons of unstandardized regression coefficients for player variables, by race and position, reveal a number of instances of inequality. However, these inequalities do not occur consistently with respect to the same type of performance, nor do they always place blacks at a disadvantage. Furthermore, blacks who do not enjoy the market power granted to players by the advent of free agency are not uniformly victimized by discrimination in salaries. Instead, the newest evidence suggests that signs of salary discrimination that were found in data on hitters from the 1977 season are not manifest 10 years later.

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Salaries and Race in Professional Baseball: The Hispanic Component

Sociology of Sport Journal ◽

10.1123/ssj.5.3.278 ◽

1988 ◽

Vol 5 (3) ◽

pp. 278-284 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Wilbert M. Leonard

Keyword(s):

Major League Baseball ◽

Regression Coefficients ◽

Professional Baseball ◽

Free Agency ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Black And White ◽

Major League ◽

Relevant Variables ◽

Independent Variable ◽

Race Ethnicity

This study replicated Christiano’s inquiry on race and salaries in major league baseball in 1987. However, instead of merely dichotomizing the independent variable into black and white, the data were trichotomized into white, black, and Hispanic categories. Unstandardized regression coefficients (after disaggregating the observations by race / ethnicity, position, and free agency status) revealed several instances of salary inequities but no systematic patterning. The conclusion: The salaries of baseball players varying in race / ethnicity were not consistently different even while holding other theoretically relevant variables constant.

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Salary Discrimination in Major League Baseball: The Effect of Race

Sociology of Sport Journal ◽

10.1123/ssj.3.2.144 ◽

1986 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 144-153 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Kevin J. Christiano

Keyword(s):

Multiple Regression ◽

Major League Baseball ◽

Regression Coefficients ◽

Regression Analyses ◽

Major League ◽

Using Data

Using data on the salaries of 212 nonpitchers appearing in team lineups on major league baseball’s 1977 Opening Day, this article explores how rewards to veteran professionals are influenced by race. Multiple regression analyses and separate comparisons of regression coefficients for returns to performances by blacks and by whites reveal a single indication of salary discrimination against blacks. White infielders are apparently paid more for each home run they hit than are their black counterparts.

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Analysis of Injuries and Pitching Performance Between Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball: A 2-Team Comparison Between 2015 to 2019

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/23259671211008810 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (5) ◽

pp. 232596712110088

Author(s):

Ryan L. Crotin ◽

Toshimasa Yanai ◽

Peter Chalmers ◽

Kenneth B. Smale ◽

Brandon J. Erickson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Los Angeles ◽

Major League Baseball ◽

Professional Baseball ◽

Injury Incidence ◽

Mechanism Of Injury ◽

Research Collaborations ◽

Minor League ◽

Major League ◽

Player Game ◽

And Performance

Background: There has been minimal research investigating injury and pitching performance differences between Major League Baseball (MLB) and other professional leagues. Purpose/Hypothesis: This 2-team comparison between MLB and Japan’s Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) involved affiliated players over 5 years. We hypothesized that teams would differ in the injury incidence, mechanism of injury, pitch velocity, and pitch type usage. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Between 2015 and 2019, pitching data as well as injury statistics for the highest level and minor league affiliates of the Los Angeles Angels (MLB) and the Hiroshima Toyo Carp (NPB) were reviewed for significant differences in the injury prevalence, injury type, mechanism of injury, and days missed. In total, 3781 MLB and 371 NPB injuries were studied. Results: MLB-affiliated players were significantly younger, taller, and heavier ( P < .001) than were NPB-affiliated players. MLB-affiliated pitchers threw faster than did their NPB counterparts ( P = .026). MLB minor league pitchers threw more curveballs than did NPB minor league pitchers ( P = .004), and MLB minor league relief pitchers threw more sliders than did NPB minor league relief pitchers ( P = .02). The MLB team had a 3.7-fold higher incidence of injuries versus the NPB team (0.030 vs 0.008 injuries per player-game, respectively) as well as more repeat injuries, with fewer days missed per injury (15.8 ± 54.7 vs 36.2 ± 55.1 days, respectively; P < .001). The MLB team also had a higher percentage of injuries that were throwing related ( P < .001), were contact related ( P < .001), and occurred outside of competition ( P < .001) compared with the NPB team. Conclusion: This is the first empirical study examining injury trends and pitching characteristics between MLB and NPB athletes. MLB-affiliated pitchers threw faster and relied more on breaking pitches in comparison with NPB-affiliated pitchers. From injury data, MLB players were younger, taller, and heavier with a higher percentage of throwing-related injuries, contact injuries, and injuries sustained outside of competition. Overall, the MLB team indicated a 3.7-fold higher rate of reported injuries with fewer days missed per injury than did the NPB team. Competitive conditions are distinctly different between MLB and NPB, and thus, more extensive research collaborations in the future can identify best practices to advance health and performance for both leagues.

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A Comparison of Cardinal Gaze Speed between Major League Baseball Players, Amateur Prospects, and Non-athletes

Journal of Sports and Performance Vision ◽

10.22374/jspv.v2i1.5 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 2 (1) ◽

pp. e17-e28

Author(s):

Karla Kubitz ◽

Claire-Marie Roberts ◽

Melissa Hunfalvay ◽

Nicholas Murray

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Major League Baseball ◽

Limited Attention ◽

Professional Baseball ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Major League

PurposeSensorimotor variables have been shown to predict performance in professional baseball players. However, cardinal gaze speed in baseball players has received only limited attention. This study tested the hypothesis that the cardinal gaze speed in Major League Baseball (MLB) players would be faster than in amateur prospects and non-athletes. MethodSeventeen MLB athletes, 160 amateur prospects, and 128 non-athletes were tested using an eye-tracking test (i.e., the RightEye CGP test) designed to measure cardinal gaze speed. ResultsMLB players had significantly faster cardinal gaze speed than either amateur prospects or non-athletes. Moreover, there were significant differences in cardinal gaze speed across different directions. ConclusionsThis was the first study to examine the speed of gaze in the cardinal positions in an athletic context. The results highlight the significant difference in cardinal gaze speed between MLB players, amateur prospects, and non-athletes.

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Model Construction and Prediction of Major League Baseball WPCT Using Multiple Regression Analysis

The Korean Data Analysis Society ◽

10.37727/jkdas.2017.19.4.2071 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 19 (4) ◽

pp. 2071-2079

Author(s):

Seok-Won Lee ◽

Young-Jin Chun

Keyword(s):

Regression Analysis ◽

Multiple Regression Analysis ◽

Multiple Regression ◽

Major League Baseball ◽

Model Construction ◽

Major League

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Analysis of Non-Game Injuries in Major League Baseball

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967119888499 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 (12) ◽

pp. 232596711988849

Author(s):

Amanda Esquivel ◽

Michael T. Freehill ◽

Frank C. Curriero ◽

Kevin L. Rand ◽

Stan Conte ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Recent Literature ◽

Major League Baseball ◽

Tracking System ◽

Injury Rate ◽

Primary Diagnosis ◽

Professional Baseball ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Minor League Baseball ◽

Minor League ◽

Major League

Background: Numerous studies have investigated injuries and treatments in the baseball athlete. The majority of these studies have focused on the throwing shoulder and elbow. However, more recent literature is reporting injuries to other regions in this cohort, including the knee, head, hip, and hamstring. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of the current study was to determine the number and type of injuries in Major League Baseball (MLB) and Minor League Baseball (MiLB) players that do not occur during the actual game but are related to baseball participation. Our hypothesis was that there would be a substantial number of injuries that occurred in professional baseball players during non-game situations. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiological study. Methods: Deidentified, anonymous data were collected from the 2011 through 2016 seasons from the MLB Health and Injury Tracking System (HITS) medical record database. All injuries that were identified as a primary diagnosis and resulted in at least 1 day out of play from both MLB and MiLB were examined. Injuries were categorized as occurring during the game (“game” injuries) or not during the game. A “non-game” injury was defined as occurring at any time other than during the scheduled game from the first to last pitch. Results: There were 51,548 total injuries in MLB and MiLB players from 2011 to 2016, almost 40% of which were attributed to non–game-related injuries (n = 19,201; 37.2%). The remainder occurred during a game (n = 32,347; 62.8%). A significantly greater percentage of non-game injuries were season ending (10.8%) compared with the percentage of game-related season-ending injuries (8.4%) ( P < .0001). Pitchers had significantly more non–game-related injuries than game-related injuries ( P < .0001). Conclusion: A large number of injuries occur in professional baseball outside of actual games. MiLB players, specifically pitchers, are particularly at risk for these types of injuries. It is feasible that the overall injury rate in professional baseball players could be reduced by analyzing these injuries in more detail to develop prevention strategies.

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Ankle and Lower Leg Injuries in Professional Baseball Players

Foot & Ankle Orthopaedics ◽

10.1177/2473011419s00282 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 4 (4) ◽

pp. 2473011419S0028

Author(s):

Christopher Lucasti ◽

Myles Dworkin ◽

William Warrender ◽

David Pedowitz ◽

Brian Winters ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Surveillance System ◽

Major League Baseball ◽

Lower Leg ◽

Injury Surveillance ◽

Professional Baseball ◽

Injury Surveillance System ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Leg Injuries ◽

Minor League ◽

Major League

Category: Ankle, Sports, Trauma Introduction/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the injury characteristics of ankle and lower leg injuries in professional baseball players during the 2011-2016 seasons by utilizing the Major League Baseball (MLB) injury surveillance system. Methods: Our study is a descriptive epidemiological evaluation through a retrospective review from the MLB Health and Injury Tracking System (HITS) since its implementation in 2011. We included any professional baseball player (Major League and Minor League) who was identified as having an ankle or lower leg injury from January 1, 2011 through February 28th, 2017.Over the study period there were a total of 4,756 injuries of which 763 (16.0%) occurred in the Major League and 3,993 (84.0%) occurred in the Minor League. Results: The average number of days missed for all players was 27.8 days (+/-141.4 days) with a median of 3 days. From 2011 through 2016 it was estimated that there were 414,912 athlete exposures (AEs) in Major League Baseball and 1,796,607 AEs in the Minor Leagues. Of the 4,756 injuries recorded, 550 (11.6%) took place during the Major League regular season and 3,320 (69.8%) took place during the Minor League regular season. Major League injuries, however, were 1.7 times more likely to require surgery (p < .001). Additionally, rates of injury to the lower leg were stratified by position with infield players experiencing injuries at a 1.6 times greater rate than any other position (p < .001). Conclusion: In conclusion, the data from this study represents the only epidemiological study to focus primarily on lower leg injuries in professional baseball players utilizing an injury surveillance system developed by MLB.

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Incidence and Return to Play after Biceps Tenodesis in Major League Baseball Players

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967117s00115 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 5 (3_suppl3) ◽

pp. 2325967117S0011 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Peter Nissen Chalmers ◽

Brandon J. Erickson ◽

Nikhil N. Verma ◽

Anthony A. Romeo

Keyword(s):

Major League Baseball ◽

Small Sample ◽

Shoulder Surgery ◽

Return To Play ◽

Rate Of Return ◽

Labral Repair ◽

Professional Baseball ◽

Biceps Tenodesis ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Major League

Objectives: Superior labral anterior-posterior (SLAP) tears are a common source of inability to play among baseball players of all levels. SLAP repair is unpredictable and thus biceps tenodesis (BT) has been proposed as an alternative. Furthermore, tenodesis may be indicated for pain isolated to the biceps tendon. The incidence of BT among professional baseball players is unknown, as are the rates of return to play (RTP). The purpose of this study was to determine RTP rates after BT among professional baseball players. Methods: Major League Baseball (MLB) has maintained a prospective database containing all major and minor league baseball players who have undergone shoulder surgery since 2010. Using this database we determined the incidence, demographics, position, prior surgical history, concomitant procedures, RTP rates, time to RTP, and performance upon RTP for professional baseball players following BT. Minimum follow-up was 2 years. Results: Between 2010 and 2013, 17 professional baseball players underwent BT, of which 71% were pitchers, and 29% were in the major league. Forty-seven percent had a history of prior shoulder surgery and 47% underwent concomitant labral repair. Overall RTP after BT was 35%. RTP for isolated BT was 44% in 0.8±0.5 years while RTP for those who underwent both BT and labral repair was 25% (p=0.620). All players who RTP were able to return to at least ten games at their pre-operative level of play. Return to professional play was significantly more common among position players than pitchers (80% vs. 17%, p=0.028). RTP was less common among players with prior shoulder surgery, but this was not statistically significant (56% vs. 13%, p=0.131). For those players who did RTP, pre-operative and post-operative performance was unchanged. Conclusion: Professional baseball players who undergo biceps tenodesis have a 35% rate of return to their prior level of play. While pitchers have only a 16% rate of return to play, position players have an 80% rate of return to play. Furthermore, 100% of those who returned to baseball played at least 10 games at their pre-operative level with no significant change in performance statistics. Professional baseball players who choose to undergo biceps tenodesis should be counseled regarding the low rates or return to play. Pitchers in particular may have a poor prognosis following tenodesis. However, given the small sample size and concomitant procedures, further study is needed before definitive conclusions can be made.

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