The Measure of Her Actions: A Quantitative Assessment of Anglo-Jewish Women's Litigation at the Exchequer of the Jews, 1219–81

Taking a chiefly quantitative approach to Jewish women's litigation at the Exchequer of the Jews between in the period 1219–81, this article represents the first exploration of Jewish women before the law in medieval England. It contends that, far from enjoying a level of ‘legal sexual equality’ not available to Christian women, Anglo-Jewish women at the Exchequer of the Jews in fact shared many of their experiences of (secular) law and justice with their Christian counterparts. This contention is possible in part because of the greater interest, over the last decade, in pre-modern European women's litigation and the realisation that Christian women of all classes were able to navigate their way around judicial systems in ways that confounded any theoretical legal disadvantages they may have faced. The article variously examines the number of Jewish women litigating at the Exchequer of the Jews, their roles in court and representation in the records, and the types of litigation in which they took part. It demonstrates that if we are ever to seek a holistic view of the operation of legal jurisdictions in medieval England, our knowledge must include the experiences of Anglo-Jewish women.

Moderate Secularism in Europe in the Face of Integration Challenges: The Debate about Legal Pluralism and Multiculturalism

Public authorities in Europe are faced with increasing demands to accommodate religious diversity. This article traces some key issues concerning the limits of the secular State in Europe to accept and accommodate those ethno-religious minorities that are perceived to be partially different entities and claim some jurisdiction, without thereby rejecting guarantees from the receiving legal system. This multicultural challenge that minorities pose to institutionalized secularism is amongst the most complex political and long-term issues European states have to face. Such a challenge has not only to do with socio-economic disadvantage and discrimination in the labour markets but also with the constitutional status or corporate relationship with the State. On the other hand, European anxieties question whether or not Muslims can be and are willing to be integrated into European society and its political values; in particular, values of freedom, tolerance, democracy, sexual equality and secularism. Across Europe, multiculturalism seems to be in retreat and ‘integration’ is once again the watchword.

Two ways to be a velvet worm

There are two ways to be a velvet worm. One is to mate vaginally at a young age, give birth in any month and have small, scarce males. The other is to periodically inseminate through the body wall, with sexual equality in size and abundance. The second way seems to be an evolutionary adaptation to habitats that are colder and drier than the habitats of neotropical velvet worms.

Equality in theory: From a heteronormative to an inclusive psychology of romantic love

Since 1970, research on romantic relationships has burgeoned, but its theories and methods were shaped by a heteronormative cultural context. Heteronormativity is an ideology that implicitly holds that heterosexuality is, and should be, the only, dominant, or taken-for-granted sexuality for all. The movement towards sexual equality, particularly legal recognition of equal marriage, now allows psychologists to investigate romantic love in a more equal manner than ever before. To orient psychology towards less heteronormative theories of love, we make explicit how researchers in the past have (a) defined love and relationships as heterosexual, (b) presumed heterosexual patterns of love generalize to all, (c) used methodologies that introduce heterosexual bias, and (d) located differences in same-gender couples rather than between same-gender and opposite-gender couples. We conclude with recommendations on how critical thinking at all stages of research can make the difference between heteronormative and inclusive research on romantic love and relationships.