The historical spread of Buddhism can best be described as the extension of the nodes and strands of a network. “Globalization” is used here to identify the fact that over the last two centuries those networks have extended across the globe, bringing diverse communities in different countries into closer and more frequent contact than was previously possible. The two main sources of a globalizing tantric Buddhism are the Japanese tradition of Shingon and the lineages of Tibet in exile. From the 19th century Shingon spread to Hawai‘i and the west coast of the United States, and more recently to South America, particularly Brazil. These reflect similar patterns of growth and decline as well as revitalization frequently seen in immigrant churches with histories of over a century. The period from the end of the 19th into the 20th century saw the rise of a tantric movement in China that sought to reclaim the “lost” Tang era tradition. The “Tantric Rebirth Movement” looked either to Japan, as having a lineage continuous with Tang era tantra, or to Tibet, which was seen as having a superior form that could revitalize tantra in China. These two strains continue to mold tantric Buddhism in the present, including in Taiwan and other centers of Chinese expatriate populations. Tibetan Buddhism has also expanded globally, introducing tantric lineages, teachings, and practices to many different countries. The globalization of tantric Buddhism has not gone uncontested, however. Interactions with European and American adherents have created strains within the Tibetan community; the movement of modernizing Theravādin traditions in Nepal has created stresses on the traditional tantric communities there; and evangelical Christians have attempted to stave off what they see as the demonic influences of Tibetan tantric practice from the territories they claim as their own.
The Role of Immigrant Churches in the Ethnic Socialization of Korean American Youths
