CAN FIGURES PERSUADE? ZEUGMA AS A FIGURE OF PERSUASION IN LATIN

Use of rhetorical figures has been an element of persuasive speech at least since Gorgias of Leontini, for whom such deliberate deviations from ordinary literal language were a defining feature of what he called the ‘psychagogic art’. But must we consider figures of speech limited to an ornamental and merely stylistic function, as some ancient and still many modern theorists suggest? Not according to contemporary cognitive rhetoric, which proposes that figures of speech can play a fundamentally argumentative role in speech by evoking a level of shared meaning between speaker and listener, and simultaneously by affording the possibility of reorganizing this common ground. This paper argues that, in Latin literature, zeugma—the ‘linking together’ of two elements (usually nouns or prepositional phrases) with a third (usually a verb) that is semantically compatible with only one of them—can and very often does operate argumentatively, and that it does so by surfacing figurative relationships that normally remain below the conscious awareness of Latin speakers and by imparting a certain structure to these relationships. What very often motivates the selection of elements within zeugma—and what makes zeugma more than simply a stylistic device—are in fact metaphorical structures that are highly conventionalized in Latin's semantic system. In tapping into symbolic associations that are deeply entrenched in the language and thought of Latin speakers, zeugma therefore provided a ready-made device for constructing arguments in context.

MOTIVATIONAL ASPECT OF FUNCTIONING OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN ENGLISH NEWS STORIES: A COGNITIVE RHETORICAL APPROACH

The aim of the suggested investigation lies in defining mechanisms of activating person’s basic needs with the help of PhUs in the news stories. To achieve the goal we have used the method of random sampling, linguo-cognitive and contextual-interpretational analysis.The results of the research. A cognitive-rhetorical approach to studying functions of PhUs’ in news stories has revealed that they appeal to person’s basic needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, reputation and self-actualization. The effects of satisfying the needs or their deficit are created by PhUs due to their constructional basis resting on preconceptual sensorimotor structures.PhUs produce the effect of the deficit of the physiological need in food relying on the relations of motion through many intermediate points. While the sense of satisfying the mentioned need is created by the PhUs based on ENABLEMENT, which also along with the COMPULSION image-schema creates the impression of self-actualization of participants represented as the source of the force activity. PhUs with the meaning of close distance and containment create the effect of inclusion into a family circle or a social group and the relations of exclusion conversely point that the belongingness need is not satisfied. Phraseological units trigger the feelings of safety being based on BLOCKAGE serving as a protection or safety deficit representing participants as the source of DISABLEMENT and COUNTERFORCE. PhUs appealing to the esteem need are based on STATUS VERTICALITY creating the effect of satisfying this need localizing event participants at the TOP and their DOWN position, i.e. their not reaching the top of the status hierarchy indicates the deficit of esteem. Conclusions. Phraseological units are constructions, i.e. pairings of form, meaning and function, which rely on preconceptual sensorimotor structures – image-schemas. Localizing, space-motor and dynamic relations as the basis for PhUs as constructions allow us to explain the mechanisms of the effects of satisfying or the deficit of the basic human needs produced by the units under investigation.Key words: construction, cognitive rhetoric, needs, rhetorical effects. Мета пропонованого дослідження полягає у встановленні механізмів активації базових потреб людини за допомогою ФО у текстах новин. Досягнення мети і завдань статті стало можливим завдяки застосуванню методів суцільної вибірки, лінгвокогнітивного та контекстуально-інтерпретаційного аналізу. Результати дослідження. Когнітивно-риторичний підхід до вивчення ролі ФО в новинних текстах виявив, що досліджувані одиниці апелюють до базових потреб людини: фізіологіч-них, у безпеці, належності, репутації і самоактуалізації. ФО формують ефекти задоволення або дефіциту вказаних потреб за рахунок їхньої конструкційної сутності, яка спирається на доконцептуальні структури сенсомоторного походження. ФО ство-рюють ефект дефіциту задоволення фізіологічної потреби в їжі з опертям на відношення руху багатьма проміжними точками. Натомість відчуття задоволення вказаної потреби сталі вирази викликають за рахунок ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ МОЖЛИВОСТІ, яке також поряд із образ-схемою ПРИМУШЕННЯ, формує враження самоактуалізації учасників подій, співвідносних із джере-лом силової дії. Звороти зі семантикою близької відстані і вміщення створюють ефект входження до кола сім’ї або соціальної групи, а відношення виключення, навпаки, свідчать про незадоволення потреби в належності. Фразеологізми викликають враження безпеки, спираючись на образ-схему ПЕРЕШКОДА, яка виконує захисну функцію, або дефіциту безпеки, представ-ляючи учасників подій як джерело ПОЗБАВЛЕННЯ МОЖЛИВОСТІ і ПРОТИДІЇ. ФО, які апелюють до потреби у визнанні, засновуються на СТАТУСНІЙ ВЕРТИКАЛІ, створюючи ефект задоволення цієї потреби через локалізацію учасників подій УГОРІ, а про дефіцит визнання свідчить зображення суб’єктів УНИЗУ, тобто недосягнення ними вершини статусної ієрархії.Висновки. Фразеологічні одиниці є конструкціями, тобто єдністю форми, значення і функцій, яка спирається на доконцеп-туальні структури сенсомоторного досвіду людини – образ-схеми. Локалізаційні, просторово-моторні і динамічні відношення в основі ФО як конструкцій дозволяють пояснити механізми створюваних досліджуваними одиницями риторичних ефектів задоволення або дефіциту потреб.Ключові слова: конструкція, когнітивна риторика, потреби, риторичні ефекти.

Reading against the text? Metarepresentation and patterns of subjectivity in the summarization of Henry James’s tales

Informed by cognitive narratology and specifically based on our metarepresentational ability, this paper explores how the subjectivity in Henry James’s tales is transferred to the summaries provided by critics for the orientation of readers. Since it enables real, and realistic, minds to process content along with sources and paths of propagation, the metarepresentational skill proves to be an essential instrument for discriminating in narrative texts the authenticated, source-free facts from those which are contingent on the subjective domains of characters and character-narrators. When for a number of reasons this skill is relaxed or altogether deactivated in the act of summarizing, the resulting product will betray the original work by projecting a distorted or reductive image of it, particularly in a writer like James who was increasingly concerned with imparting informational verisimilitude to his fiction. The treatment of metarepresentational sources in the summaries of James’s tales generates perplexing patterns, such as when the handling of sources in a summary contradicts the critic’s own conclusions elsewhere in his or her work. This clash yields insights into the authenticating function of the fictional text in connection with its cognitive rhetoric.

RENAISSANCE-HUMANISTIC CONCEPTS OF CULTURE OF PEDAGOGICAL DIALOGUE OF THE TEACHERS OF THE ORDER FROM THE SOCIETY OF JESUS IN EARLY MODERN TIMES

A period of European Renaissance is the birth of the modern personality and virtues Renaissance Christian humanism is a model of ethical attitudes today. The first attempt of early modern European youth education in educational system of coordinates of Renaissance humanism, no doubt, was created within the youth Order of St. Ignatius.The proposed article is devoted to the analysis of verbal communicative competence of early modern Jesuit teachers. The author revealed the contents of value-semantic, spiritual and pedagogical concepts of educational communication in the Society of Jesuits, and proved that it was based on Renaissance and Christian- humanistic positions of “brilliance, beauty and sophistication” of the academic word, the skill of public speaking and high style and the art of eloquence of the early modern university speaker.The author concludes that the Jesuits interpreted pedagogically Renaissance and humanistic intellectual heritage to the implementation of the Order implementing schooling some semantic meaning loads of humanism in this article. Recognizing it as "imitation of ancient people", as an appeal to samples of ancient learning,fundamental virtues of the Society of Jesus proclaimed erudition, sophistication of Latin, intellectual culture, exquisite taste, eloquence, perfection scientist speech and public speaking, virtuous behavior. With the Renaissance and humanistic individualism priorities code integrity Jesuit added active devotion, diligence, active, creative enthusiasm and initiative, determination and zeal, compassion, rationality and prudence, the Jesuits appreciated the talent and abilities of youth, drawn attention to the need to care for the physical health etc. Etymological interpretation of humanity as humanity in correctional priorities Jesuits answered task of building virtues of modesty and politeness, prudent and tolerance, respect and attention for elders, love and kindness, ethics, partnership and unity.The article highlights and grounds the components of the Jesuit methodology of formation of conversational competencies in the youth of the Order (didactically and cognitive, rhetoric and stylistic, moral and aesthetic); the article also proves the sonority of the Jesuit practice of teaching literature with the didactic pedagogy of the European Renaissance. The conclusion was made about the significant role of socio- cultural, socio-integrating task and spiritual significance of educational communication of Jesuit teachers for implementation of the European Youth Policy of St. Ignatius rank in XVI – XVII centuries.