L.N. Tolstoy's Principle of “Non-Resistance to Evil by Violence” in the Context of Russian Religious Philosophy of the Late XIX - Early XX Century

The article discusses how the meaning of the principle of “non-resistance to evil by violence” was changing in L.N. Tolstoy's religious and philosophical teachings and how this principle was evaluated in Russian religious philosophy of the late XIX - early XX century. In the first version of Tolstoy’s teachings, set forth in the book “What is my faith?”, the principle of non-resistance was understood in a moral sense, as the norm for all people; its execution should lead to the perfection of earthly life. This idea of L. Tolstoy was sharply criticised by his contemporaries, who noted that there was no truly religious content in Tolstoy’s teachings, it was turning into a utilitarian doctrine of the earthly progress of mankind. Given this criticism, Tolstoy in his later works changed his understanding of the principle of non-resistance. Drawing a distinction between two levels of human life - “animal” and divine, Tolstoy recognised the principle of non-resistance to the law as the divine life of a man. As a result, the principle of non-resistance has acquired a religious rather than moral meaning, since the transition of a man to a divine life means a mystical transformation of his being. He is aware of his super-spatial and super-temporary unity with all people and with all being, and therefore can evaluate the consequences of his actions not only in the limited sphere of his life, but also in all infinite being. In this regard, a person realizes the absolute superiority of good deeds over evil, even if the latter are committed to confront evil. It is shown that some critics of Tolstoy came to a similar understanding of the religious meaning of the principle of non-resistance at the end of their lives (N.A. Berdyaev, L.P. Karsavin).

From Holy Striving to Wholly Abiding: Mystical Transformation in James Hudson Taylor (1832–1905)

James Hudson Taylor (1832–1905), founder of the China Inland Mission in June 1865, was one of the most influential 19th century British Protestant missionaries in China. His writings, sermons and personal letters are suffused with spiritual insights and mystical nuances, notably Union and Communion,1 his short devotional work on the Song of Songs which was published in 1894. This article focuses on his mystical or transformative experience of 1869 which effected a profound experiential union with Christ and a new consciousness of soul rest. Captured here as a transformation ‘from holy striving to wholly abiding’, the significance of this pivotal moment is elucidated in terms of its immediate personal effect and its lasting impact on Taylor’s mission vocation. The relevance of Taylor’s mysticism for contemporary missionary spirituality is briefly delineated.

AKTIVISME TASAWUF MENURUT FETHULLAH GÜLEN

This article will elaborate the sufism thought of Fethullah Gulen. He has transformed Sufism from purely spiritual experience turned into an activity that is directly in contact with the issue of Muslims and human beings on this earth. Two of the most prominent organizer of the mystical transformation is education and the world peace movement. He tried to bring peace to the world across cultures, religions and ethnicities. The thought pattern of Gülen which is based on religious values and the universality has created a concept which is more popular in the community, but do not abandon spiritual values. The transformation of ideas and concepts of sufism who taught the importance of devotion to others, selflessness and love of neighbor. Abstrak: Artikel ini akan mengelaborasi pemikiran tasawuf Fethullah Gulen. Ia telah mentransformasikan tasawuf dari yang hanya bersifat pengalaman spiritual berubah menjadi sebuah aktivitas yang langsung bersentuhan dengan persoalan umat Islam dan manusia di bumi ini. Dua agenda yang paling menonjol dari transformasi sufistiknya itu adalah pendidikan dan gerakan perdamaian dunia. Ia berupaya mewujudkan perdamaian dunia lintas budaya, agama maupun etnis. Pola pemikiran Gülen yang dilandasi nilai-nilai keagamaan dan universalitas telah menciptakan konsep yang lebih memasyarakat namun tidak meninggalkan nilai-nilai spiritual. Transformasi dari pemikiran dan konsep tasawwuf yang mengajarkan pentingnya pengabdian kepada orang lain, tidak mementingkan diri sendiri dan cinta terhadap sesama. Keywords: transformasi, tasawuf, perdamaian, pendidikan, generasi emas.

Intertextuality: On the use of the Bible in mystical texts

This article discussed the use of the Bible in mystical texts by focusing on intertextuality as a literary approach which analyses the intersection of texts. It investigated how mystical texts, as phenotexts, relate to the Bible as archetext: firstly, the intertextual relations affect the surface of the text in a mono-causal way and secondly, they govern the production of meaning reciprocally. The article also discussed forms of intersection (quotations, collage, allusions and reproduction) before it analysed the three intertextual strategies producing meaning: participation, detachment and change or rearrangement. Finally, six functions and dimensions of meaning were delineated in the intertextual dynamic between the Bible and the mystical texts. In these the Bible serves as an authoritative framework for argumentation, as a guide and blueprint of the mystical way, as a vocabulary of mystical experience, as an initiation into the divine infinity, as the place of mystical transformation in love and as the articulation of transformation in glory.

The Changing Shape of Late Medieval Mysticism

The historical development of explicit forms of Christian mysticism can be sketched according to a model of gradually accumulating and interactive layers of tradition. The monastic ideal of flight from the world in order to lead a specialized life of penance and prayer, either as a hermit or within a community, formed the institutional context for most forms of Christian mysticism down to the end of the twelfth century. This monastic layer of mysticism was primarily biblical and liturgical in the sense that it sought God in and through personal appropriation of the mystical understanding of the Bible as cultivated within the liturgical life of the monastic community. Most monastic mystics were also “objective” in the sense that they rarely talked about their own experiences of God, but rather sought to express their understanding of mystical transformation through biblical exegesis and theoretical expositions of a mystagogical character (that is, expositions designed to lead readers into the mystery of the consciousness of God's presence)