The Spirit in John’s Apocalypse

Despite the lack of unambiguous references to the Spirit, scholars have argued vigorously both for and against identifying some (though not all) of the occurrences of πνεῦμα as references to the Holy Spirit. In the last couple of decades, a renewed interest in the Apocalypse—especially by pentecostal biblical scholars—has led to a fresh discovery of its pneumatology, among other insights. This essay surveys the pneumatological components found in Revelation. Specifically, it investigates references to πνεῦμα, which naturally fall into four groupings: (1) the seven spirits, (2) John’s claim to be “in the Spirit,” (3) references to the Spirit speaking, and (4) the concept of “the Spirit of prophecy.”

Apocalypse, Authority, and Allegiance: Interpreting Symbols and Revelation in Mozambique

Proper interpretations of symbols of authority are important for navigating both our cultural settings and the contours of Scripture. This paper looks at the ways the Book of Revelation contrasts images of competing authoritative kings, asking the question, who is worthy of worship, Caesar or Christ? In the African Folk-Islamic context of the Makua-Metto people of Mozambique, familiar national and traditional symbols of authority provide a framework for a robust reading of John’s Apocalypse.

Intimations of Revelation 19–21 in the Early North African Christian Communities

The purpose of this article is to provide a survey of the interpretation of Revelation 19–21 in the early North African Christian communities (II–III century). These chapters refer to one of the most controversial passages of John’s Apocalypse (the eschatological war, the millennial kingdom, and the descent of the New Jerusalem). After a brief methodological reflection, the article will investigate how these chapters were interpreted not only in the early Latin authors but also how this material was employed in martyrdom accounts as well. The study, in fact, will begin with the first Latin document of Christian literature, the Acta Martyrum Scilitanorum, followed by the corpus of Tertullian, the Passio Sanctarum Perpetuae et Felicitatis, and the writings of Cyprian.

John’s Apocalypse in Relation to Johannine, Pauline, and Other Forms of Christianity in Asia Minor

Revelation was addressed to seven churches in western Asia Minor. What John writes in Revelation shows us that there are a range of differing viewpoints in these seven churches. One group that is present is the Nicolaitans, to whom John is adamantly opposed. Paul founded churches in western Asia Minor, and 1–2 Timothy informs us that the Pauline tradition continued in the area. It is likely that John’s Gospel and 1–2–3 John were written in Ephesus. This raises the question of the relationship between Revelation and other forms of Christianity, including the Johannine and Pauline traditions. This will be considered by looking at the issues of acculturation, assimilation and accommodation, eating idol-meat, attitudes to imperial rule, material possessions and leadership and the locus of authority in Revelation, 1–2 Timothy and 1–2–3 John. Overall, it is argued that John writes to Christians of a variety of persuasions and that he anticipates that he will receive a mixed reaction from his readers.

The Interpretation of John’s Apocalypse in the Medieval Period

This chapter surveys the dominant modes of interpreting the Revelation in the Middle Ages. Attention is given to the influence of the older Latin commentaries by Victorinus and Tyconius on medieval exegesis, and to the ways in which the patristic perspectives were appropriated by early medieval commentators such as Primasius, Beatus, Bede, Alcuin, and Haimo. The tradition continued to be adapted through new interpretive methods in twelfth-century commentaries, such as the one ascribed to “Berengaudus” and that of Richard of St. Victor. The interpretation by Rupert of Deutz, followed by Anselm of Havelberg and, especially, Joachim of Fiore interpreted Revelation in terms of broader conceptions of history. Finally, attention is given to the continued development of historical perspectives by writers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, including Alexander Minorita, Peter John Olivi, and Nicolas of Lyra.