The Old Testament in the Book of Revelation

Though once neglected, the study of the Old Testament in the book of Revelation has received a great deal of attention in recent years. The reason for the neglect was that John does not actually quote the Old Testament but uses its language to construct his visions. His favorite books are those of the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, along with the Psalms. The sheer density of allusions and echoes has led some scholars to call it a “midrash,” though others do not think this does justice to the originality of John’s composition. The chapter begins with the question of the language of the allusions and echoes and then moves on to John’s use of particular books (Ezekiel, Daniel, Isaiah), his fusion of allusions and echoes in particular passages (1:12–16; 5:5–6; 12:1–18; 15:3–5) and his use of common Old Testament themes (Worship God alone/New Exodus/God’s abiding presence).

Imagery in the Book of Revelation

The chapter first surveys different types of figurative speech in Revelation, including simile, metaphor, symbol, and narrative image. Second, it considers the way images are interrelated in the narrative world of the book. Third, it notes how the images draw associations from various backgrounds, including biblical and later Jewish sources, Greco-Roman myths, and the imperial cult, and how this enriches the understanding of the text. Fourth, the chapter looks at the rhetorical impact of the imagery on readers and stresses in particular its evocative, persuasive, and parenetic function together with its emotional effect. And fifth, it looks briefly at the way reception history shows how the imagery has engaged readers over time. Thus, illustrated by numerous examples, it becomes clear how essentially the imagery of the book of Revelation constitutes and determines its theological message.

Interpreting Revelation through African American Cultural Studies

African American scholarship on Revelation makes fruitful use of cultural studies as a discipline. This approach draws on the field of sociology, social history, literature, anthropology, linguistics, and other cultural markers. As a method for biblical interpretation it values both the ancient context and the current cultural contexts of readers, and is open to multiple interpretations. This essay considers the various ways Revelation has functioned in African American congregations, the impact of Liberation theology, womanist and postcolonial perspectives, and the notion that Revelation is subversive or resistance literature. Attention is given to similarities and differences between African American scholars concerning Revelation’s political perspective, its approach to identity construction, and the way in which the book might engage current readers.

The Book of Revelation in Music and Liturgy

This chapter discusses Revelation’s soundscape and meaning as a huge hymn festival around the marriage feast of the Lamb. It is about God’s goodness, mercy, and power over evil in a cosmic view, not a secret code for our calendars. Relationships between the book of Revelation and the church’s liturgy and music are explained, along with influences from the liturgy to Revelation and from Revelation to the liturgy. The Sanctus and Agnus Dei of the Ordinary, hymns, and other music for the worship of the church are included. Oratorios and Olivier Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time move to music, which, though outside the liturgy, also relate to Revelation and express its themes. Some implications about Revelation’s relevance for worship, music, and life together conclude the article. In Messiaen’s words, “It is all love.”

Reception History and the Interpretation of Revelation

The chapter describes the discipline of reception history as the study of the ongoing use, interpretation, and impact of a biblical text. If the history of interpretation has often focused on the ways biblical texts are understood in commentaries and theological writings, reception history also considers how a book was received in spirituality and worship, in music, drama, literature, visual art, and textual criticism. Criteria for selecting and organizing materials useful for reception history are discussed, and there is a review of recent attempts to provide broad overviews of Revelation’s reception history, along with specific examples of the value of the discipline for interpreting Revelation.

Perspectives on Evil in the Book of Revelation

This chapter argues that the concept of evil in the book of Revelation is defined in terms of opposition to the kingdom of God and is, therefore, closely tied to the book’s social situation. Some scholars argue that the oppression of faithful Christians by Rome is the underlying context; this has led to a view that evil is primarily external to the church. Other scholars argue that compromise and accommodation with Roman culture is the underlying context, which has led to a view that evil is both internal and external to the church, but it does not involve overt oppression. This chapter suggests that Revelation addresses both the oppressed and the compromised through the use of a warfare metaphor. Revelation posits that victory over evil occurs through faithful witness, both of Christ and of his followers, and the faithfulness of God to his creation.

Revelation and Roman Rule in First-Century Asia Minor

This chapter examines the interactions between Revelation and Roman rule in first-century Asia Minor. While much of the discussion has posited that Roman persecution of Christians for not participating in the imperial cult was the fundamental dynamic for Revelation’s interaction with Roman rule, the chapter argues that claims of persecution are historically unfounded and that reconstructions of mandatory imperial cult observance are false. By contrast, it then argues that more sustainable scenarios of Revelation’s interaction with Roman power recognize Revelation’s perspectival rhetoric of opposing significant levels of societal participation in various aspects of Roman culture and economy. Revelation’s author opposes such accommodation and condemns imperial structures by imitating and deploying Roman gender constructs and reinscribing the empire’s destructive impact on the environment.

The Hymns in Revelation

The hymns in Revelation are one of the primary vehicles through which the author makes theological, Christological, and soteriological claims. This chapter explores the formal and functional characteristics of ancient hymns, giving special attention to hymnic form and performance in early Judaism and Christianity. It considers the contents of each of Revelation’s hymns, their significance within the literary structure of Revelation, and the extent to which they provide theological and Christological commentary on the surrounding visions. Hymnic themes include the sovereignty of God and the vice-regency of the Lamb, which function as implicit claims against Roman imperial rule, and emphasize the writer’s anti-imperial stance.

Introduction to Revelation’s Social Setting, Theological Perspective, and Literary Design

This chapter first considers the social setting in which Revelation was composed and first read. Aspects include the author’s role as Christian prophet and the issues facing the readers, which include conflict with outsiders, questions of accommodating Greco-Roman religious practice, and complacency due to wealth. Theological perspectives are discussed in relation to images such as of God, the Lamb, and new Jerusalem, and Satan, the beast, and Babylon. The literary structure includes six cycles of visions, which include some repetition even as they move forward to the climax in the final chapters. Each aspect contributes to the book’s overall purpose, which is that readers live out their commitments to God, Christ, and their community of faith, while resisting the overt and subtle pressures to do otherwise.

The Interpretation of the Book of Revelation in Early Christianity

This chapter attempts an overview of the use and interpretation of the book of Revelation up to the end of the fourth century. Revelation’s first readers shared with its author a marginalized status in the Roman world and naturally tended to interpret its images, which spoke to them of both their current and future situations, in the light of present circumstances. Chiliast and non-chiliast approaches to Revelation’s eschatology emerged early, as interpreters sought to steer a path between Jewish messianic expectation on the one side, and anti-creational, dualizing heresy on the other. By the late second and early third century, writers were explicitly debating the hermeneutical methods appropriate to the exposition of Revelation and other prophetic Scriptures. Victorinus of Pettau (late third century) published the first known commentary on the book, but it is the ecclesiastically centered commentary of Tyconius that sets the stage for medieval exegesis.