A Survey of the Combinatorial Paraphernalia in Protein Synthesis

Statement of the Problem: The combinatorial paraphernalia in protein synthesis to be surveyed are multifarious, embracing, phenomena, processes, activities and materials, all characterized by plurality and dissimilarity. The materials usable are phenomenal and must be a set of discrete plural and dissimilar objects, e.g. the RNA four bases of Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine (A,U,G,C) for the activity of permutation for building genetic code. Sequences for protein type sequence composition, proliferation and diversification as inherent in protein synthesis. Methodology and Theoretical Orientation: We are in for combinatorics which is the scientific study of the phenomenon of input/output productivity exhibited by a duality of numeral entities as in permutation of specified set (n) of dissimilar discrete plural. Things and selection (r) of them. The Dalina apparatus of Input/Output Multiplicative Replication system equipped with Square Kinematics View Mixing Technique sourced from inchoate Numeration Science literature being developed by this author is in use for the computation of 4 from 4 permutations of RNA four bases, A,U,G,C constituting the 24 quadruplet genetic code as the workforce in protein synthesis. Findings: The combinatorial paraphernalia in protein synthesis identified and surveyed comprise 14 characteristics, 3 materials and 11 processes/operatives. Conclusion and Significance: The relevance of the several identified and surveyed combinatorial paraphernalia in protein synthesis has been demonstrated by the test of agreeability with the working of the Dalina apparatus of Input/ Output Multiplicative Replication Combinatorial System using the Square Kinematics View Mixing technique for the computation of permutations of RNA four bases A,U,G,C making up the 24 quadruplet genetic code as the workforce in protein synthesis for the substance of all plants and animals throughout CREATION.

Ordinal notations and induction

In order to prove that the simplification process for arithmetic eventually reaches a simple proof, it is necessary to measure the complexity of proofs in a more sophisticated way than for the cut-elimination theorem. There, a pair of numbers suffices, and the proof proceeds by double induction on this measure. This chapter develops the system of ordinal notations up to ε0 which serve as this more sophisticated measure for proofs in arithmetic. Ordinal notations are presented as purely combinatorial system of symbols, so that from the outset there is no doubt about the constructive legitimacy of the associated principles of reasoning. The main properties of this notation system are presented, and it is shown that ordinal notations are well-ordered according to its associated less-than relation. The basics of the theory of set-theoretic ordinals is developed in the second half of the chapter, so that the reader can compare the infinitary, set-theoretic development of ordinals up to ε0 to the system of finitary ordinal notations. Finally, Paris-Kirby Hydra game and Goodstein sequences are presented as applications of induction up to ε0.

Moral Molecules: Morality as a Combinatorial System

What is morality? How many moral values are there? And what are they? According to the theory of morality-as-cooperation, morality is a collection of biological and cultural solutions to the problems of cooperation recurrent in human social life. This theory predicts that there will be as many different types of morality as there are different types of cooperation. Previous research, drawing on evolutionary game theory, has identified at least seven different types of cooperation, and used them to explain seven different types of morality: family values, group loyalty, reciprocity, heroism, deference, fairness and property rights. Here we explore the conjecture that these simple moral ‘elements’ combine to form a much larger number of more complex moral ‘molecules’, and that as such morality is a combinatorial system. For each combination of two elements, we hypothesise a candidate moral molecule, and successfully locate an example of it in the professional and popular literature. These molecules include: fraternity, blood revenge, family pride, filial piety, gavelkind, primogeniture, friendship, patriotism, tribute, diplomacy, common ownership, honour, confession, turn taking, restitution, modesty, mercy, munificence, arbitration, mendicancy, and queuing. These findings indicate that morality – like many other physical, biological, psychological and cultural systems – is indeed a combinatorial system. Thus morality-as-cooperation provides a principled and powerful theory, that explains why there are many moral values, and successfully predicts what they will be; and it generates a systematic framework that has the potential to explain all moral ideas, possible and actual. Pursuing the many implications of this theory will help to place the study of morality on a more secure scientific footing.

Moral Molecules: Morality as a combinatorial system

What is morality? How many moral values are there? And what are they? According to the theory of morality-as-cooperation, morality is a collection of biological and cultural solutions to the problems of cooperation recurrent in human social life. This theory predicts that there will be as many different types of morality as there are different types of cooperation. Previous research, drawing on evolutionary game theory, has identified at least seven different types of cooperation, and used them to explain seven different types of morality: family values, group loyalty, reciprocity, heroism, deference, fairness and property rights. Here we explore the conjecture that these simple moral ‘elements’ combine to form a much larger number of more complex moral ‘molecules’, and that as such morality is a combinatorial system. For each combination of two elements, we hypothesise a candidate moral molecule, and successfully locate an example of it in the professional and popular literature. These molecules include: fraternity, blood revenge, family pride, filial piety, gavelkind, primogeniture, friendship, patriotism, tribute, diplomacy, common ownership, honour, confession, turn taking, restitution, modesty, mercy, munificence, arbitration, mendicancy, and queuing. These findings indicate that morality – like many other physical, biological, psychological and cultural systems – is indeed a combinatorial system. Thus morality-as-cooperation provides a principled and powerful theory, that explains why there are many moral values, and successfully predicts what they will be; and it generates a systematic framework that has the potential to explain all moral ideas, possible and actual. Pursuing the many implications of this theory will help to place the study of morality on a more secure scientific footing.

Chestnut-crowned babbler calls are composed of meaningless shared building blocks

A core component of human language is its combinatorial sound system: meaningful signals are built from different combinations of meaningless sounds. Investigating whether nonhuman communication systems are also combinatorial is hampered by difficulties in identifying the extent to which vocalizations are constructed from shared, meaningless building blocks. Here we present an approach to circumvent this difficulty and show that a pair of functionally distinct chestnut-crowned babbler (Pomatostomus ruficeps) vocalizations can be decomposed into perceptibly distinct, meaningless entities that are shared across the 2 calls. Specifically, by focusing on the acoustic distinctiveness of sound elements using a habituation-discrimination paradigm on wild-caught babblers under standardized aviary conditions, we show that 2 multielement calls are composed of perceptibly distinct sounds that are reused in different arrangements across the 2 calls. Furthermore, and critically, we show that none of the 5 constituent elements elicits functionally relevant responses in receivers, indicating that the constituent sounds do not carry the meaning of the call and so are contextually meaningless. Our work, which allows combinatorial systems in animals to be more easily identified, suggests that animals can produce functionally distinct calls that are built in a way superficially reminiscent of the way that humans produce morphemes and words. The results reported lend credence to the recent idea that language’s combinatorial system may have been preceded by a superficial stage where signalers neither needed to be cognitively aware of the combinatorial strategy in place, nor of its building blocks.

Iconicity and Structure in the Emergence of Combinatoriality

One design feature of human language is its combinatorial phonology, allowing it to form an unbounded set of meaningful utterances from a finite set of building blocks. Recent experiments suggest how this feature can evolve culturally when continuous signals are repeatedly transmitted between generations. Because the building blocks of a combinatorial system lack independent meaning, combinatorial structure appears to be in conflict with iconicity, another property salient in language evolution. To investigate the developmental trajectory of iconicity during the evolution of combinatoriality, we conducted an iterated learning experiment where participants learned auditory signals produced using a virtual slide whistle. We find that iconicity emerges rapidly but is gradually lost over generations as combinatorial structure continues to increase. This suggests that iconicity biases, whose presence was revealed in a signal guessing experiment, manifest in nuanced ways. We discuss implications of these findings for different ideas about how biases for iconicity and combinatoriality interact in language evolution.

THE SEARCH FOR THE SHORTEST ROUTE FOR TOURISTS VISITING SIGHTSEEING OBJECTS OF THE RAZNA NATIONAL PARK

The aim of the paper is to popularize the Razna National Park’s tourist attractions. The opportunity to choose the shortest route to visit all the most interesting potential sightseeing objects is offered. The authors continue their research on the theoretical and practical aspects of searching for the shortest route. Theoretical research has been carried out and mathematically the shortest route has been calculated for various sightseeing objects of the Razna National Park. The paper also provides mapping of these objects and an analysis of the locations of the sightseeing objects at different levels. The main goal of the paper is to show the possibilities of applying mathematical models in solving practical tasks – to determine the shortest route between the sightseeing objects. This research describes an optimization method called Simulated Annealing. The Simulated Annealing method is widely used for various combinatorial optimization tasks. Simulated Annealing is a stochastic optimization method that can be used to minimize the specified cost function given a combinatorial system with multiple degrees of freedom. In this paper, the application of the Travelling Salesman Problem is demonstrated, and an experiment aimed to find the shortest route between the Razna National Park sightseeing objects is performed. Common research methods are used in this research: the descriptive research method, the statistical method, mathematical modelling.