Fear of large carnivores is tied to ungulate habitat use: evidence from a bifactorial experiment

The fear large carnivores inspire in large ungulates has been argued to have cascading effects down food webs. However, a direct link between ungulate habitat use and their fear of large carnivores has not been experimentally tested. To fill this critical gap, we conducted a bi-factorial experiment in an African savanna. We removed shrub cover and broadcast large carnivore vocalizations (leopard, hyena, dog) or non-threatening control vocalizations in both experimentally cleared and shrubby control sites. We recorded the proactive (frequency of visitation) and reactive (fleeing or vigilance) responses of multiple prey (impala, warthog, nyala and bushbuck). Critically, we found a significant proactive–reactive interaction. Ungulates were 47% more likely to run after hearing a predator vocalization in shrubby control sites than experimental clearings, demonstrating that ungulates perceived less fear from large carnivores in open habitat (clearings). Consistent with this finding, ungulates visited clearings 2.4 times more often than shrubby control sites and visited shrubby control sites less often at night, when large carnivores are most active. Combined with results from previous experiments demonstrating that the disproportionate use of available habitats by large ungulates can alter ecosystem properties, our experiment provides critical evidence that the fear large carnivores inspire in large ungulates can cause trophic cascades.

The impact of customer resources on customer value in co-creation: the multiple mediating effects

Purpose Co-creating value with customers is important for companies in order to gain a competitive advantage. Based on resource theory and social interaction theory, the purpose of this paper is to explore the customer participation mechanism in co-creating value and test the effects of different types of customer resources and multi-level customer–firm interaction on customer value. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from tourism industry. Hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling. Findings The results indicate that both the customer’s human resource and relationship resource have a significantly positive effect on customers’ utilitarian value and hedonic value through reactive and proactive interactions. Reactive interaction has a full mediating effect on the relationship between relationship resource and proactive interaction, whereas proactive interaction has a full mediating effect on the relationship between reactive interaction and hedonic value. Originality/value This study explores the mediating effects of customer–firm interaction between customer resources and customer value. This paper contributes to the understanding of customers’ motivations for, and the processes of, participating in value co-creation.

Interaction and Interactivity in Metaverse

This chapter approaches the Interaction potential that arises from the Interactivity provided in the Metaverse technology, which is connected to Immersion, Telepresence and Digital Virtual Presence in Metaverses. Some of the subtopics presented and discussed are: Concept of Interaction and Interactivity; Mutual Interaction and Reactive Interaction, Types of Interaction, Languages and interaction/interactivity in Metaverse, as well as a brief conclusion to the chapter, demonstrating that the Metaverses presents new elements for the educational context, meaning that the methodologies and the pedagogical practices, so far adopted, are not able to exploit to maximum potential the level of interactivity offered by technology. It is therefore necessary to construct methodologies and practices that take into account such potential and be able to enable mutual interaction between those involved in the educational process.