Possessive classifiers in Zamucoan

This chapter discusses noun categorization devices in Zamucoan languages (Ayoreo, Chamacoco, and the extinct Old Zamuco), spoken in the Northern Chaco lowlands of South America. It focuses on two categorization devices: (i) a small gender system with masculine/feminine distinction; and (ii) possessive classifiers. The chapter demonstrates that Zamucoan languages display different structures involving the use of possessive classifiers, which agree in gender and number with the possessed. In addition, classifiers mark another grammatical system, the so-called ‘form’, which distinguishes between predicative and argument function of the NP, and, within the argument, between specific and non-specific referent. The chapter concludes that the interaction of classifiers with this peculiar system, and their agreement in gender and number with the possessed, are rare features related to their nominal origin. The chapter suggests that possessive classifiers could be an areal feature of Chaco languages, shared with the Guaycuruan and Mataguayan languages, which also mark gender and number on classifiers.

Classifiers in Shiwilu (Kawapanan)

Shiwilu (or Jebero), a Kawapanan language from Peruvian Amazonia, features a closed set of over twenty classifiers. These are bound roots that attach to the right of their host. They resemble conventional classifiers in terms of the meaning properties they convey and their high degree of semantic transparency (Aikhenvald 2000). Shiwilu establishes a first distinction between animate and inanimate classifiers; the former divide into female and male natural gender, whereas the latter are structured according to salient dimensionality, constitution, function, and arrangement. An account of the Shiwilu nominal classifying system is provided in Valenzuela (2016a). This chapter delves into a few cross-linguistically unusual properties that may enrich the typological knowledge of noun categorization devices; namely, the ability of Shiwilu classifiers to appear in a remarkable number of morphosyntactic environments, undergo productive reduplication, and realize various syntactic functions when incorporated into the verb. The chapter also explores the text frequency of classifier morphemes.

Numeral classifiers in Japanese

This examination of numeral classifiers in standard Japanese (hyoojungo) focuses on their interaction with nouns and their referents in terms of both meaning and function. By unitizing their referents, Japanese numeral classifiers not only facilitate enumeration but also play an important discourse pragmatic role in the understanding of referentiality. While Japanese numeral classifiers have been discussed in much previous research, this chapter offers further insights into a range of issues that are of typological interest in relation to noun categorization systems. These issues include the extent to which a distinction can be made between classifiers and quantifiers in this language, as well as between classifiers whose referents are represented by nouns or verbs. The chapter also extends the understanding of the discourse pragmatic functions of Japanese numeral classifiers and opens a new area of investigation into their idiosyncratic, metaphorical uses by speakers to express their subjective attitude towards a referent.

The elusive verbal classifiers in ‘Witoto’

This chapter focuses on forms and functions of verbal classifiers in Murui and Mɨka, two closely related language varieties of the ‘Witoto’ dialect continuum from the Witotoan language family spoken in Northwest Amazonia. Murui and Mɨka verbal classifiers are used to refer to a previously mentioned referent or to re-introduce the referent into the discourse. They form a closed set of morphemes that signal the presence of S/O/peripheral arguments. ‘Witoto’ verbal classifiers interact with semantic types of verbs (they co-occur with verbs of ‘handling’ and ‘affect’), and categorize noun referents in terms of their physical properties (shape, size, structure, etc.). Further comparison of Murui and Mɨka verbal classifiers suggests that the productivity of this system has been gradually eroding in Murui as spoken today; this is unlike verbal classifiers found in older Mɨka narratives.

Noun categorization devices

A noun may refer to a man, a woman, an animal, or an inanimate object of varied shape, size, and function, or have abstract reference. Noun categorization devices vary in their expression, and the contexts in which they occur. Large sets of numeral classifiers in South-East Asian languages occur with number words and quantifying expressions. Small highly grammaticalized noun classes and gender systems in Indo-European and African languages, and the languages of the Americas are expressed with agreement markers on adjectives, demonstratives, and also on the noun itself. Further means include noun classifiers, classifiers in possessive constructions, verbal classifiers, and two lesser-known types: locative and deictic classifiers. This introductory chapter offers a general typological background, focusing on issues in noun categorization devices particularly relevant for this volume.

Classifiers in Hmong

Building on research done by Riddle (1989) and Bisang (1993), inter alia, this chapter seeks to provide a more thorough account of the classifier system of the two varieties of Laotian Hmong (Hmong-Mien, Laos and diaspora), White Hmong and Green Mong. In Hmong, classifiers are an open class, belonging to one of six semantic varieties, including locational. While most classifiers function as multiple classifiers, covering the roles of noun classifier, numeral classifier, possessed classifier, and deictic classifier, some individual classifiers may permit only a subset of these. Classifiers not only serve multiple functions related to syntax and discourse, including to indicate emphasis, selection of a subgroup, and apportioning of objects, but also participate in four-syllable elaborate expressions subject to specific rules, as well as display distinct behaviour in certain narrative contexts that represent special exceptions to Bisang’s (1993) hierarchy of definiteness for Hmong.

A view from the North

This chapter addresses the issue of coexistence of noun categorization devices within one language. Genders and other noun categorization devices—be they numeral classifiers, or other classifiers—are generally thought of as being relatively independent from one another. Co-existing and overlapping systems of genders and classifiers are cross-linguistically uncommon. The chapter shows that this is a feature of some Arawak languages from north-west Amazonia, two genders—feminine and non-feminine—are obligatorily marked on verbs and nouns, and demonstratives and other modifiers within a noun phrase. Classifiers used on number words, and in a variety of other contexts, categorize the noun in terms of its physical properties, and distinguish gender. Gender is thus integrated within the system of classifiers. Gender markers may co-occur with classifiers in one word. The chapter concludes that gender distinctions and gender markers are uniform across the Arawak language family, and can be reconstructed for the proto-language. The chapter proposes that classifiers may have developed separately in each subgroup within the family.

Genders and classifiers in Kampa (Arawak) languages of Peru

This chapter examines the semantics, morphosyntax, and functions of the gender and classifier systems of Kampa Arawak languages of Peru. All Kampa languages have genders and classifiers. Their origin and diachronic development are different. Gender agreement morphology comes from the pan-Kampa verbal person markers. The sources of multiple classifiers are bound nouns inflected on the pattern of obligatorily possessed nouns, unbound nouns, and bound verb roots; these are considered in the context of compounding and noun incorporation. Gender marking is mandatory and exhaustive, being reflected in the agreement marking on noun modifiers (adjectives, demonstratives, possessor NP), possessive pronouns, demonstrative identifiers, personal pronouns, verbs, and coordinating operators. Multiple classifiers show less exuberant distribution, occurring on nouns, verbs, number words, and adjectives. Classifiers are neither sensitive to gender nor animacy. Classifiers are semantically motivated, showing semantic agreement with controller nouns. The multiple classifier system does not participate in syntactic parsing of constituents via morphological agreement. The main purpose of their use is pragmatic.

Numeral classifiers in Munya, a Tibeto-Burman language

The topic of the chapter is Munya, a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in the western part of Sichuan Province, China. Classifiers in Munya include numeral classifiers and verbal action classifiers. There are two sets of numerals in Munya, a native set and a set borrowed from Tibetan, and both can function as the loci of numeral classifiers. Based on semantics, numeral classifiers in Munya can be categorized as sortal classifiers and mensural classifiers. The chapter shows that one of the typologically unusual features of Munya is that several numeral classifiers have extended their functions. Erstwhile classifiers are shown to function as quantifiers, adverbs, adverbial manner demonstratives, and complementizing strategies. In addition, the chapter shows that Munya has two ways of forming verbal action classifiers: a general verbal action classifier can be either suffixed to a number word, or a verbal root can function as a verbal action classifier.

Multifunctionality of deictic classifiers in the Toba language (Guaycuruan)

This chapter presents the multiple functions of deictic classifier (DCs)—a cross-linguistically less frequently attested type—in the Toba language (Guaycuruan, Gran Chaco region). The system of six DCs encodes position of the human body (standing, sitting, lying down), distance (proximal and distal) and visual evidentiality (in sight / out of sight). Since DCs in Toba form a rather complex and multifunctional system, in which they carry functions in the areas of semantics (as classifiers), morphosyntax (as determiners), pragmatics (in the signalling of time and evidentiality), syntax and discourse (in the information structure), and style (as elements in the performance of certain text genres), the chapter proposes to illustrate the interplay between these functions in order to provide a more complete picture of the role of DCs in Toba.