Epilogue

After his final defeat, Napoleon was transported to the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena by the British, where he lived under permanent guard. Unlike the rest of his adult life, these years were ones of inaction and largely of immobility. Napoleon spent these years seeking control not over Europe, but over how history would remember him. It was the last chapter of his life but, more important, the first chapter of the longer, hugely contentious story of his historical significance. In 1820, Napoleon fell seriously ill, and on May 5, 1821, he died at fifty-one. The Epilogue explains how his legacy continued to shape European history in a massive and direct manner for decades.

5. Downfall, 1812–1815

‘Downfall, 1812–1815’ describes Napoleon’s catastrophic attempt to destroy Russia’s army in 1812. Despite failing to win the latest Russian war, Napoleon still controlled vast territories with unmatched human resources. The 1813 campaigns, which Napoleon fought in Germany against the Sixth Coalition came close to reversing his fortunes. But why did Napoleon and the allies not make peace? In 1814, the allies entered France forcing Napoleon to abdicate. He retired to Elba and was replaced by the Bourbon pretender, Louis XVIII. Less than a year later, Napoleon returned to seize power for a second time. Only after his defeat at Waterloo in June 1815 by Lord Wellington would his fall from power become permanent.

4. The emperor, 1804–1812

‘The emperor, 1804–1812’ describes the imperial expansion after Napoleon became Emperor. It explains how the new political and military forces unleashed by the French Revolution, which had made possible Napoleon’s astonishing conquests and reforms, did not allow him to consolidate and preserve them. Instead, a different geopolitical dynamic took shape. On the level of grand strategy, Napoleon felt increasingly forced into incessant war and annexation, above all because of his inability to overcome his greatest and most supremely frustrating enemy, Great Britain. The brutal Napoleonic wars are described, including the battles at Trafalgar and Austerlitz, defeat of Prussia, and the shortcomings of the French navy. Napoleon was finding it difficult to control events.

1. The Corsican, 1769–1796

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 in Corsica, just after it came under the control of the Kingdom of France. ‘The Corsican, 1769–1796’ outlines Napoleon’s early life, including his enrolment at Brienne military boarding school at age nine. He developed a love of literature and considered life as an author, but after finishing Brienne, he went to the École Militaire in Paris, graduating in 1785. In 1786, after his father’s death, Napoleon returned home to Corsica to help with family affairs. He remained in Corsica after the start of the French Revolution, but his rise through the ranks of the French Army is described along with his marriage to Rose de Beauharnais (Joséphine) in 1796.

Introduction

The story of Napoleon’s life runs from his birth on Corsica in 1769 to his death in exile on Saint Helena in 1821, stretching beyond his death to include posthumous battles over his reputation. It is the story of a man with genuinely extraordinary personal qualities and involves some of the most dramatic events in history. The Introduction explains the story cannot be understood without placing Napoleon in the broader context of his age—both the historical changes that made him possible and the historical forces that he so powerfully grasped hold of. Napoleon’s entire story took place against the background of the French Revolution, which paved the way for his astonishing career.

3. The First Consul, 1799–1804

Napoleon Bonaparte is mostly admired for his domestic achievements from 1799–1804. This Consulate period was one of authoritarian rule, but also of energetic state-building, during which Napoleon established institutions and principles by which the French still govern themselves today. ‘The First Consul, 1799–1804’ explains how during this time, Napoleon negotiated diplomatic agreements with many of his foreign enemies, including Austria and Great Britiain. His new regime also installed a new, streamlined law code, overhauled the education system, and created France’s first successful national bank and stabilized the currency. In 1804, Napoleon was crowned Emperor of the French. However, peace was not long-lasting and France was soon at war again.

2. The general, 1796–1799

‘The general, 1796–1799’ describes how it was the French Revolution that made Napoleon’s stupefying ascent possible. The Revolution badly damaged the traditional hierarchies of French society, opening the door to radically new forms of social mobility and political power. It also unleashed newly intense forms of war, and provided French rulers with new ways to harness their country’s formidable natural resources against its enemies. Napoleon displayed both military and political genius. His successful battles in Italy and Austria are outlined, followed by his campaign in Egypt, which triggered a new period of large-scale European war. Finally, his return to France to sieze power from the French parliament is described.