Serbia and Southeastern Europe between Global and East European History

Drawing on a half century of Balkan research and publication that started in Belgrade, John Lampe reviews three new Western histories of the region and their attention to Serbia from prominent Western historians. Germany’s Calic examines only Southeastern Europe, while Connelly from the US and Bideleux and Jeffries from the UK include the Balkans in their volumes on Eastern Europe.

Origin and Historical Process of Modern Europe: Part Two

Europe made the earliest contribution to modern civilisation and modernisation of Europe has long drawn attention from the academic world. This article conducts an investigation into the origin and historical process of modern Europe from a macroscopic perspective, in order to develop better understanding of the connection between European history and modern civilisation. It first illustrates the historical background against which modern Europe originated. Then it interprets the historical process of Europe’s modernisation with respect to economy, culture, politics, and technology. The outcomes and significance of Europe’s modernisation are discussed at the end. This study also reveals obvious continuity of European history and its impact on the modern world.

Origin and Historical Process of Modern Europe: Part One

Europe made the earliest contribution to modern civilisation and modernisation of Europe has long drawn attention from the academic world. This article conducts an investigation into the origin and historical process of modern Europe from a macroscopic perspective, in order to develop better understanding of the connection between European history and modern civilisation. It first illustrates the historical background against which modern Europe originated. Then it interprets the historical process of Europe’s modernisation in respect to economy, culture, politics, and technology. The outcomes and significance of Europe’s modernisation are discussed at the end. This study also reveals obvious continuity of European history and its impact on the modern world.

Note on Conquest and Cession

In this note Wight provided a brief survey of institutions for the conquest and cession of territories, illustrated by examples in European history since the fifteenth century. Some legal and political forms concealed de facto conquest and cession to spare the amour propre of the losing party and thereby minimize its humiliation. In some cases, enfeoffment combined conquest with continuing vassal status. Other methods of saving face and bargaining over status included granting an imperial vicariate, diplomatically evading the issue, camouflaging the cession, and making the cession conditional. Conquest and cession became more direct and undisguised with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, if not earlier. Since the eighteenth century, however, the consent of the residents of the territory to be ceded has become a more prominent issue. Since 1919 disregard for previous approaches to conquest and cession has led to new political and legal frameworks on recognition involving national policies such as the Stimson Doctrine, international treaties such as the Kellogg–Briand Pact, and international organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations.

Dynastic Legitimacy

In this essay Wight clarified the importance of dynastic legitimacy—that is, hereditary monarchy—in European history. In the Middle Ages and subsequent centuries, rulers were mainly princes who inherited their crowns. The principal exceptions were the leaders of republics, including Venice, Ragusa, Genoa, and Lucca in Italy; the Swiss confederation; and the United Provinces of the Low Countries. Dynastic principles included the theory that the ruler was chosen by God through hereditary succession, and that the monarch represented his or her subjects, notably with regard to the official religious denomination of the country. Such principles made dynastic marriages valuable means to provide heirs to the crown, to clarify succession to the throne, to consolidate alliances, to gain influence and wealth, and to legitimize territorial gains. Despite imprudent and egocentric behaviour by some royal leaders, monarchs were increasingly expected to pursue national rather than personal dynastic interests. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna reaffirmed dynastic principles of legitimacy, including in Venice and the Netherlands; the Swiss confederation was a conspicuous exception. Dynastic rulers have, however, tended to become symbols and instruments of national unity and self-determination. Popular support for dynastic houses has in many cases led to popular legitimacy for constitutional monarchies.

Poles in Belgium and the question of rebirth of an independent Polish state

The issue of the participation of Polish political emigration in the struggle for freedom and its comprehensive activity in the political, scientific and cultural spheres are reflected in the Polish (European) history, thus providing valuable research material for future generations. Polish post-partition emigres, especially after the major national uprisings, was concentrated mainly in France, England and Belgium. Polish emigration in Belgium, similar to some extent to emigration in France – albeit smaller in number – was constituted by the Polish colony, represented, among others, by soldiers seeking refuge after the November Uprising (including several dozen officers, e.g. Ignacy Kruszewski, Feliks Prot de Pruszyński, Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki, Władysław Zamoyski) and representatives of culture and science, Joachim Lelewel (an outstanding Polish historian, spiritual guide in an exile democratic camp), Stanisław Worcell (thinker and social activist of the Great Emigration) and many other outstanding Poles. The aim of this article is to present the role of Polish emigration in Belgium, its contribution to the struggle for Poland’s independence, and to draw attention to the scholarly dispute surrounding the Great Emigration between Polish and Belgian historians regarding the effects of “politics in exile” and the question of the heroism of Polish patriots in exile. These considerations are a contribution to a broader discussion and an encouragement to a deeper penetration of the literature (source materials) on the Great Emigration, especially, if it concerns Belgium, available in foreign languages – French and Dutch.

Non-religion and Europe

This chapter is concerned with the growing phenomenon of non-religion and its place in modern Europe. The secular is hardly a new idea in European history but its nature and forms evolve. The focus here is on the growing significance of non-religion in the twenty-first century, especially among younger people. This phenomenon is approached in different ways: conceptually, statistically, and ethnographically. The conceptual approach emphasizes the shift away from simply the absence of religion to the presence of a positively chosen alternative. The statistical section underlines the considerable variations in the presence of non-religion both within and across the different parts of Europe and the reasons for this. Finally, three ethnographic vignettes illustrate the diverse ways in which substantive and engaged expressions of non-religion ‘make sense’ within their particular socio-religious contexts.

Religion and Nationality in Europe

Throughout European history, the relationship between religion and nationality has been varied and complex. Numerous times religion has been a bearer of national traditions and a nation has been a bearer of religious traditions, as can be seen in the Church’s conciliarism and the use of the Biblical image of Israel in Christian Hebraism. However, there have also existed sharp tensions between religion and nationality, as can be seen in how the New Testament has been understood and in Canon law. These variations must be accounted for. Why and how has religion both contributed to the consolidation and continued existence of a nation, and been disruptive of that consolidation and continued existence? When pursuing answers posed by these questions, a more accurate understanding of culture, religion, and nationality will be necessary by taking into account the distinction between unity and uniformity.