Introduction

Niccolò Machiavelli died nearly 500 years ago, but his name lives on as a byword for cunning, duplicity, and the exercise of bad faith in political affairs. So much notoriety has gathered around Machiavelli’s name that the charge of being a machiavellian still remains a serious accusation in political debate. What lies behind the sinister reputation Machiavelli has acquired? Is it really deserved? What views about politics and political morality does he put forward in his major works? In order to understand Machiavelli’s doctrines, we need to begin by recovering the problems he evidently saw himself confronting in The Prince, the Discourses, and his other works of political thought.

1. The diplomat

‘The diplomat’ describes the insight that Machiavelli gained during his diplomatic career. Machiavelli became second chancellor of the Florentine Republic aged 29, despite lacking previous administrative experience. He did so in part on the strength of his humanist credentials and family connections. As a diplomat, he went to the courts of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and the papal states, meeting many of the leading political figures of the age. He judged the rulers of the time to be too inflexible and excessively reliant on fortune. He also learned the value of decisiveness. Machiavelli’s own fortunes collapsed when the Florentine Republic was dissolved after the return of the Medici.

2. The adviser to princes

‘The adviser to princes’ considers The Prince, completed in 1513, but not published until 1532. Machiavelli wrote it partly to recommend himself to the new Medici rulers of Florence. The book is concerned with gaining and holding principalities and provides advice on how to rule a state. Its principal dichotomy is that between virtù and fortuna. Machiavelli’s understanding of princely virtù is shown to be radically different from prevailing classical and humanist moral theory. For Machiavelli, a virtuoso ruler is someone who is willing to do anything dictated by necessity in order to maintain his state.

4. The historian of Florence

‘The historian of Florence’ deals with the employment of Machiavelli's later years. In 1520, Machiavelli finally gained patronage at the Medici court and was commissioned to write the history of Florence. He took care to follow the humanist prescriptions for presenting moral lessons with maximum force. However, rather than following the humanist approach of recalling the great deeds of the past to encourage emulation, he instead recounted a narrative of corruption, decline, and fall. Blaming factions for corruption and condemning Florence for veering between tyranny and licentiousness, he hoped to inspire others to avoid the corruption of the past. In the last books, his aversion to the Medici is clear.

3. The theorist of liberty

‘The theorist of liberty’ examines Machiavelli’s Discourses, which discuss the constitution of a free state, maintenance of military power, and good leadership. Examining Livy to find the roots of Rome’s success, Machiavelli argues that a city state must be self-governing and able to pursue the common good. The civic body must also possess virtù. Cities only grow quickly and manage to acquire greatness if the people are in control, so that the city and its citizens are living in liberty. But if liberty is the key to greatness, how can it be acquired and kept safe? Machiavelli admits that an element of luck is always involved, but he chiefly focuses on the role of civic religion and mixed forms of government.