6. The long interlude: (12th century to 7th century bc )

In the early twelfth century bc, the Greek and Near Eastern worlds were shaken by a series of catastrophic upheavals that brought the Bronze Age to an end. ‘The long interlude’ outlines the period of Babylonian history spanning the centuries from the fall of the Kassite dynasty in the mid-twelfth century to the rise of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom in the late seventh. In the course of these centuries, a number of dynasties rose and fell in Babylonia, most of them weak and short-lived, reflecting the frequent ebb and occasional flow of Babylonia’s political and military fortunes. Environmental factors, new tribal groups, and the preservation of Babylonian cultural traditions are discussed.

3. Old Babylonian cities

What did the city of Babylon look like? There are very few material remains of the royal city from this period, but more can be discovered about Old Babylonian cities from other urban sites in the kingdom, notably Ur and Uruk in its southern part. ‘Old Babylonian cities’ explains that each city had a major temple, or temple precinct, dedicated to its patron or tutelary deity, but the most striking monument in a number of Babylonian cities was a ziggurat: a sacred, stepped building, of between three and seven levels, ascending pyramid-like towards the heavens. The ziggurat of Babylon became notorious in biblical tradition as the ‘tower of Babel’.

Introduction

The origins of Babylon date back almost two thousand years before the foundation of Rome. Among the longest continuously inhabited urban settlements in human history, it became the centre of one of the most culturally and intellectually vibrant civilizations of the ancient world, exercising a profound influence on its Near Eastern contemporaries, and contributing to the religious, scientific, and literary traditions of the Classical world. This VSI does not just deal with Babylon, but with the whole of southern Mesopotamia, extending southwards from modern Baghdad, in the region where the Tigris and the Euphrates closely approach each other, through the marshlands in the deep south to the Persian Gulf.

5. Writing, scribes, and literature

By the beginning of the Old Babylonian Kingdom, Sumerian and its cuneiform alphabet was a dead language, but it acquired a revered status in educated and cultured circles in Babylonian society. Young men were trained in the Sumerian language at scribal schools and often progressed to careers in palace administration or divination, which played a major role in shaping the lives, the plans, and the activities of the peoples who inhabited the Babylonian world. ‘Writing, scribes, and literature’ considers three of the most important surviving examples of Babylonian literature, copied and sometimes adapted by many generations of scribes: the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Epic of Creation, and the Atrahasis Epic.

9. Babylonia in later ages: (6th century bc to 2nd century ad )

‘Babylon in later ages’ begins with Babylonia under Persian rule when Cyrus invaded in 539. He honoured, preserved, and maintained Babylon’s and Babylonia’s time-honoured traditions, cults, gods, and religious customs and sought to remove every trace of Nabonidus’s reign. Babylonia remained under Persian control until the year 330 when the final remnants of the Persian empire fell to Alexander the Great, who died in Babylon in 323. Then came the Seleucid empire under Seleukos, followed by control under the Parthians. Despite numerous changes in rule, the traditional elements of Babylonian religious life and some of the traditional elements of Babylonian intellectual life survived well into the first century ad.

7. The Neo-Babylonian empire: (626–539 bc )

In 626, Babylon’s throne was seized from Assyrian control by Nabopolassar. Weakness and instability in the heartland of the Assyrian kingdom, which followed the death of Assyria’s last great king, Ashurbanipal, were exploited by the vigorous new Babylonian leader to throw off the shackles of Assyrian overlordship and establish a new independent kingdom in the south. ‘The Neo-Babylonian empire’ describes Nabopolassar’s reign before considering the defining figure of the Neo-Babylonian era: his son, Nebuchadnezzar II. Militarily, Nebuchadnezzar established the most powerful and the most far-reaching empire of any Babylonian king. The last ruler of the empire was Nabonidus, who spent much of his reign in Tayma in northern Arabia.

4. The Kassites: ( c. 1570–1155 bc )

The Hittite sack of Babylon around 1595 ended the Old Babylonian Kingdom and left a political power vacuum in the region. It was not until the arrival of the Kassites from the Eurasian steppe lands that the kingdom became politically stable. ‘The Kassites’ outlines how, despite few written and archaeological sources, the Kassites took control of the region and bestowed the greatest benefit on Babylonia in the form of nationhood. Their respect for the traditions and customs of their subjects provided a peaceful, secure environment within the land, which helped ensure that the arts and sciences flourished, in such fields as literature, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, music, art, and architecture.

8. Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon

Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reached the height of its cultural, intellectual, and material splendour. Other cities of the kingdom also benefited greatly during his reign, especially in their material development. ‘Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon’ re-creates Nebuchadnezzar’s royal capital using evidence from the archaeological record. It describes the layout of the city and the design and structure of Babylon’s palaces and temples built by Nebuchadnezzar and his father, Nabopolassar. The twelve-day New Year festival, which celebrated the arrival of spring and Marduk’s triumph over the forces of evil, is also explained. Finally, the ‘Hanging Gardens of Babylon’ are considered. Were they real or simply a fantasy?

2. Babylonian society through the perspective of Hammurabi’s Laws

An imposing stone stele (pillar) discovered during excavations of the ancient city of Susa in ad 1901–2 depicts Shamash, god of justice, and the Babylonian king, Hammurabi. It is also inscribed with a series of laws that largely define Hammurabi’s role as the shepherd of his people, and the protector of the weak and vulnerable among his subjects. ‘Babylonian society through the perspective of Hammurabi’s Laws’ outlines the nature and content of these laws and describes the information they provide about social hierarchy in Babylonia. In practice, Hammurabi’s Laws were not prescriptive rulings, but a set of guidelines—embodying important principles of justice—for the good governance of society.

1. The Old Babylonian period: ( c. 1880–1595 bc )

‘The Old Babylonian period’ concentrates on Hammurabi’s dynasty, which belonged to one of the most powerful and widespread ethnic groups in the Near East: the Amorites. Hammurabi’s reign from 1793 marked the peak period in his dynasty’s tenure of power in the Near East, particularly in the middle Euphrates region and southern Mesopotamia, but it was Sumu-la-El (c.1880–1845) who founded the kingdom of Babylonia, building a royal palace and a great fortification wall around the city. Under Hammurabi’s five successors, all of whom had long reigns, the kingdom was to last another 155 years. But within a few years of the great man’s death, decline had set in.