Quaternary of the Bengal Coast

The second chapter is about the Quaternary of the east coast in India in general and the Bengal coast in particular. This discussion on the Quaternary is crucial in the context of the evolution of settlements not only along the coastal line but also its immediate hinterland areas. It is well known that the Orissa–Bengal coastline is formed over a deep tectonic trough underlain at a great depth by the older rocks of the continental crust. Here, an attempt has been made to explain the processes responsible for shaping this narrow part of the coastline and how they are different from those along the other part/parts of the east coast. A major section of this chapter is devoted to how the Quaternary processes related to the Bhagirathi–Hooghly/Gangetic delta formation have influenced the development of the present-day serrated coastline of the Bengal Basin.

Epilogue

This chapter is not merely a summary or recapitulation of the vast archaeological data that has been utilized to reconstruct the settlement dynamics of coastal Bengal. Rather, it raises various relevant issues that are connected with the mentioned reconstruction and, above all, discusses the unresolved questions pertaining to various aspects of coastal life including culture, religion, and the trading and maritime network. While reconstructing the mechanism of contact between the hinterland and the littoral an attempt has been made by the author to explore the possibility of at least three ‘contact zones’ that were crucial in formulating not only a cultural whole but also the monitoring agencies behind this reciprocation. The involvement of religious ideologies particularly Buddhism also received special attention towards the involvement of the major and minor centres connecting the development of the Ganga valley, the Chittagong and Myanmar coast and that of the rest of Southeast Asia and obviously the participation of Buddhist establishments in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The Epilogue concludes by tracing a long chrono-cultural sequence of coastal Bengal from the BRW-associated early village farming cultural phases to the 12th–13th centuries CE. The imagery of a greater cultural orbit has been adhered to in this concluding chapter.

Assemblage Analysis

Abundant explored and excavated archaeological findings found from innumerable sites along the littoral, along with those presently in the collections of different museums or individuals, portray a definite picture of the coastal life. This chapter explores a meagre part of this repertoire of archaeological findings under the following sub-sections: structural remains, ceramics, bone tools, stone tools, beads, stuccos, stone sculptures, metal images, metal objects, terracotta crafts, coins, seals and sealings and other inscribed objects, ivory objects, wooden objects, glass objects, and miscellaneous objects. This chapter essentially acts as a corollary to the previous chapter.

Distribution of Sites/Settlements

The fourth chapter delineates the distribution of sites/settlements and the recorded archaeological assemblages, both excavated and explored. The sites/settlements have been traced out on the basis of the three arbitrary zones and they have been classified for each zone under excavated sites and explored sites. While discussing the individual sites the author has provided an elaborate description of the location, discoveries of antiquities through antiquarian efforts, corroborative references from ancient literary sources, if any, as well as a detailed report of the archaeological findings. The contexts of the findings if known have also been highlighted. In case of excavated sites, details have been given on the basis of the concerned excavation reports. Different aspects of the settlement matrices in association with their chrono-cultural developments have been traced out in the site reports. This chapter constitutes the nucleus of the present reconstruction of the settlement history of coastal Bengal.

Inscriptions and Coastal Life

This chapter explores the possibility of reconstructing the coastal life based on epigraphic sources found from the study area. Apart from the Pala and Sena inscriptions, the area under consideration yielded a significant number of epigraphic records issued by several regional lineages from the post-Gupta period onwards. The evidence found from them highlight different aspects such as coastal ecology, riverine traffic, navy, the coastal way of life, polity and, of course, the socio-cultural parameters that were equally witnessed both in the hinterland and the coastal regions. The portrayal of the epigraphic sources clearly shows that their contents supplement the archaeological sources in various ways.

Geophysical Features of Coastal West Bengal

The geo-physical features of the vast stretch of land constituting the study area have been delineated in this chapter. The present study area mainly comprises the mature and active delta regions, that is, the modern districts of North and South 24-Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly, parts of Nadia and East and West Midnapur. In addition to the mature and active delta regions, the adjoining upland areas lying to the south and west of the present district of West Midnapur have also being taken into consideration. The geo-physical considerations have led the author to classify the study area into three arbitrary zones. However, these zones should not be viewed as watertight compartments. A sub-section deals with the physiographic features of the three zones. The chapter also discusses coast-line fluctuations and river course change since the seasonal movements of sea water, stagnation of water and subsequent lagoon formation, changes in the courses of the main rivers, and excessive flow from the upper reaches often leading to floods have all influenced the surviving strategies and even the development of settlements in the coastal tract. Changes in river courses in many instances have been instrumental in the survival and spread of sites.

Historiography

This chapter is devoted to a brief outline of the vast historiography devoted to the various aspects of the settlement matrix of the concerned eastern littoral. Before highlighting the major researches in the field, a brief mention of the antiquarian activities since the 19th century pertaining to the study area has been attempted. Depending on the thematic aspect, the historiography has been delineated in different sections and ultimately the major objective and scope of the present work has been projected.