In the last chapter we saw that sunspots, aurorae, and geomagnetic disturbances vary in an 11-year cycle. So do many other solar features, including faculae and plages, which are bright regions seen in visible and monochromatic light, respectively. If both bright faculae and dark sunspots follow 11-year cycles, does this mean the sun’s total light output varies? Or are these two contrasting features balanced so that the sun’s output of light remains constant? The light output of the sun is often discussed in two different ways: either as the solar luminosity, which is the sun’s omnidirectional radiant output, or as the solar constant, the output seen in the direction of the Earth. In this chapter, we explore the variable solar light output that has been the subject of vigorous discussions. The total solar irradiance or solar constant is defined as the total radiant power passing through a unit area at Earth’s mean orbital distance of 1 astronomical unit. Today the most common units of solar irradiance are watts per square meter (W/m2). Power is defined as energy per unit time, so the solar irradiance can also be expressed in calories per square centimeter per minute. Modern experiments indicate that the sun’s radiant output is about 1367 W/m2, with an uncertainty of about 4 W/m2. About 150 years of effort by many people have been required to establish the value to this accuracy. The sun’s radiant output is not an easy quantity to measure, and we will discuss some of the struggles required to measure it. In the late 1800s, many scientists considered the solar total irradiance or solar irradiance to be constant. Oceanographers Dove and Maury vigorously supported this viewpoint, so the solar irradiance was called the solar constant. For the next century, virtually every paper concerning the sun’s radiant output used the term solar constant. No physical justification for this nomenclature existed, only a philosophical bias. Yet by the 1950s this bias proved so strong and so prevalent that support for individuals who wished to measure variations in the solar constant became almost nonexistent.
Stellar activity, differential rotation, and exoplanets