The Black Box effect: sensory stimulation after learning interferes with the retention of long-term object location memory in rats

Reducing sensory experiences during the period that immediately follows learning improves long-term memory retention in healthy humans, and even preserves memory in patients with amnesia. To date, it is entirely unclear why this is the case, and identifying the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning this effect requires suitable animal models, which are currently lacking. Here, we describe a straightforward experimental procedure in rats that future studies can use to directly address this issue. Using this method, we replicated the central findings on quiet wakefulness obtained in humans: We show that rats that spent 1 h alone in a familiar dark and quiet chamber (the Black Box) after exploring two objects in an open field expressed long-term memory for the object locations 6 h later, while rats that instead directly went back into their home cage with their cage mates did not. We discovered that both visual stimulation and being together with conspecifics contributed to the memory loss in the home cage, as exposing rats either to light or to a cage mate in the Black Box was sufficient to disrupt memory for object locations. Our results suggest that in both rats and humans, everyday sensory experiences that normally follow learning in natural settings can interfere with processes that promote long-term memory retention, thereby causing forgetting in form of retroactive interference. The processes involved in this effect are not sleep-dependent because we prevented sleep in periods of reduced sensory experience. Our findings, which also have implications for research practices, describe a potentially useful method to study the neurobiological mechanisms that might explain why normal sensory processing after learning impairs memory both in healthy humans and in patients suffering from amnesia.

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The effects of continuous versus partial reinforcement schedules on associative learning, memory and extinction in Lymnaea stagnalis

Journal of Experimental Biology ◽

10.1242/jeb.205.8.1171 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 205 (8) ◽

pp. 1171-1178 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Susan Sangha ◽

Chloe McComb ◽

Andi Scheibenstock ◽

Christine Johannes ◽

Ken Lukowiak

Keyword(s):

Associative Learning ◽

Operant Conditioning ◽

Lymnaea Stagnalis ◽

Partial Reinforcement ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Memory Retention ◽

Reinforcement Schedules ◽

Conditioning Procedure ◽

Term Memory

SUMMARY A continuous schedule of reinforcement (CR) in an operant conditioning procedure results in the acquisition of associative learning and the formation of long-term memory. A 50 % partial reinforcement (PR) schedule does not result in learning. The sequence of PR—CR training has different and significant effects on memory retention and resistance to extinction. A CR/PR schedule results in a longer-lasting memory than a PR/CR schedule. Moreover,the memory produced by the CR/PR schedule is resistant to extinction training. In contrast, extinction occurs following the PR/CR schedule.

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Dopamine Related Genes Differentially Affect Declarative Long-Term Memory in Healthy Humans

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience ◽

10.3389/fnbeh.2020.539725 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 14 ◽

Author(s):

Carla Leukel ◽

Dirk Schümann ◽

Raffael Kalisch ◽

Tobias Sommer ◽

Nico Bunzeck

Keyword(s):

Long Term Memory ◽

Term Memory ◽

Healthy Humans

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Separate chemical inhibitors of long-term and short-term memory: contrasting effects of cycloheximide, ouabain and ethacrynic acid on various learning tasks in chickens

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences ◽

10.1098/rspb.1977.0036 ◽

1977 ◽

Vol 196 (1123) ◽

pp. 171-195 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Keyword(s):

Visual Discrimination ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Ethacrynic Acid ◽

Fixed Number ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Training Procedure ◽

Memory Retention ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory

Cycloheximide injected into the brains of chickens 10 min before training does not effect their learning of a visual discrimination task, or memory of that task for at least 1 h after training. When tested 24 h later no memory of the training procedure is detectable. In contrast, ouabain injected 10 min before training prevents the expression of learning during training. The block lasts for up to 1 h, but from that time on memory begins to appear. Ouabain does not affect performance when injected just before testing for memory retention 24 h after training. It therefore affects neither the readout of long-term memory nor motivation nor perceptual abilities necessary for performance of the learning task. In birds treated with ouabain, after training on an operant task for heat reward by a procedure requiring a fixed number of reinforcements, memory is absent 20 min later but is well established at 24 h. Cycloheximide blocks long-term memory of this task. Like ouabain, ethacrynic acid, injected into the brain of chickens 10 min before training prevents the expression of learning of visual discrimination. Ethacrynic acid hastens the decline of memory after one-trial passive avoidance learning. It also blocks observational learning. We conclude that ouabain and ethacrynic acid block access to short-term memory, whereas cycloheximide interferes with the registration of long-term memory. Comparing the pharmacology of ethacrynic acid and ouabain their common known actions are on the Na/K fluxes across cell membranes. We suggest that long lasting changes in distribution of these ions in recently active nerve cells may be at the basis of access to memory during and shortly after learning.

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Enhancement of long-term memory retention and short-term synaptic plasticity in cbl-b null mice

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ◽

10.1073/pnas.0601043103 ◽

2006 ◽

Vol 103 (13) ◽

pp. 5125-5130 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

D. P. Tan ◽

Q.-Y. Liu ◽

N. Koshiya ◽

H. Gu ◽

D. Alkon

Keyword(s):

Synaptic Plasticity ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Memory Retention ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory

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Comparison of the Effect of Major- Versus Minor-Keyed Music on Long-Term Declarative Memory in High School Students

IU Journal of Undergraduate Research ◽

10.14434/iujur.v4i1.24524 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 4 (1) ◽

pp. 97-106

Author(s):

Anita Sayar

Keyword(s):

High School ◽

High School Students ◽

Experimental Test ◽

Declarative Memory ◽

Statistical Significance ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Memory Retention ◽

School Students ◽

Term Memory

This pilot study compared the effect of music played in major and minor keys on long-term declarative memory in high school students. Major and minor keys are pivotal theoretical distinctions in music known to trigger different emotional responses. While the influence of specific genres of music on memory have been studied, possible effects of the tonality of music have not been explored. It was hypothesized that music would improve LT-DM, and music played in the minor key would illicit a greater improvement than the major. A total of 21 volunteer high school students were equally randomized between two groups. Each group completed a control and an experimental long-term memory test. Tests comprised of a reading phase where students studied a standardized passage, and a multiple-choice question phase 7 days later, where their memory of the studied text was examined. The reading phase of the control test was conducted in a quiet environment. During the reading phase of the experimental test, a piece of piano music was played. The same music was played in the major key for one group and in the minor key for the other. Both groups demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in the experimental test compared to their own control (p = 0.0078, p = 0.0107). A trend towards better memory retention with the minor-keyed music was observed compared with the major key. The difference between the two groups of improvement with music, however, did not meet statistical significance (p = 0.31). A larger complementary study may provide more definitive information regarding comparative effects of major and minor musical keys on long-term memory.

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The Effect of Chronic Treatment with Lacosamide and Topiramate on Cognitive Functions and Impaired Emotional Responses in a Pilocarpine-induced Post-status Epilepticus Rat Model

Folia Medica ◽

10.3897/folmed.62.e51473 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 62 (4) ◽

pp. 723-729

Author(s):

Michaela Shishmanova-Doseva ◽

Jana Tchekalarova ◽

Zlatina Nenchovska ◽

Natasha Ivanova ◽

Katerina Georgieva ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Status Epilepticus ◽

Antiepileptic Drugs ◽

Cognitive Abilities ◽

Anxiolytic Effect ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Memory Retention ◽

Learning Session ◽

Term Memory ◽

Early Retention

Introduction: Epilepsy and antiepileptic drugs can affect negatively the cognitive abilities of patients. Aim: The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of topiramate (TPM) and lacosamide (LCM) on the emotional and cognitive re-sponses in naive animals and in animals with pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus.  Materials and methods: Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 6 groups and status epilepticus was evoked in half of them by a single i.p. administration of pilocarpine (Pilo) (320 mg/kg): Pilo-veh, Pilo-TPM (80 mg/kg) and Pilo-LCM (30 mg/kg). Matched naive rats were treated with the same doses as follows: C-veh, C-TPM, and C-LCM. In a step-down passive avoidance test, the learning session was held for one day, the early retention test was conducted on day 2, and the long-term memory test - on day 7. Motor activity and anxiety were evaluated in an open field test.  Results: The Pilo-TPM and Pilo-LCM groups increased the time spent on the platform compared to Pilo-veh animals while the C-LCM animals decreased the time compared to C-veh animals during short- and long-term memory retention tests. TPM and LCM exerted an anxiolytic effect in naive rats. The two antiepileptic drugs were unable to alleviate the hyperactivity, but they alleviated the impulsivity associated with decreased anxiety level in epileptic rats. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that LCM and TPM have a beneficial effect on cognition both in naive and epileptic rats. While the two antiepileptic drugs can produce an anxiolytic effect in naive rats, they alleviate the impulsivity after pilocarpine treatment.

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The Influence of LED Lighting on Attention and Long-Term Memory

International Journal of Optics ◽

10.1155/2020/8652108 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 2020 ◽

pp. 1-6 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Chung Won Lee ◽

Jin Ho Kim

Keyword(s):

Retention Volume ◽

Word Fragment ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Memory Retention ◽

Experimental Conditions ◽

Term Memory ◽

Led Lighting ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Led Lights

The fact that the illuminance of LED lights affects human attention and long-term memory has been verified through various studies, but there are no consistent research results about what level of illuminance is effective. The aims of this study were to systematically verify the effects of LED lighting on attention and long-term memory. The experiment was designed with four illuminance levels—300 lx, 400 lx, 500 lx, and 1,000 lx—as experimental conditions to determine the effects of LED lights on attention and long-term memory. Participants in the experiment were 18 college students. The attention task was performed using a handmade attention measuring instrument. Long-term memory was measured by the word fragment completion (hereinafter, referred to as “WFC”) task on the memory retention volume of the learning task that was learned exactly 24 hours before. Of the total 20 tasks, the ratio of correctly retrieval tasks was used as a dependent variable. As a result, attention showed the highest performance with a mean performance of 19.39 (SD = 3.78) at 1,000 lx. A statistically significant difference was also found between the 1,000 lx and 300 lx conditions (p=0.01). On the contrary, long-term memory showed the highest retrieval rate at an average of 58.06% (SD = 22.57) at 400 lx, and long-term memory performance was better in the order of 500 lx (mean = 48.89, SD = 20.33), 1,000 lx (mean = 45.83, SD = 23.53), and 300 lx (Mean = 43.33, SD = 19.10). Statistically, there was a significant difference between 300 lx and 400 lx (p=0.01), 400 lx and 1,000 lx (p=0.01). Through this study, it was verified that the effects of attention and long-term memory are different according to the illuminance of LED lighting, and these results can be important data to clarify the influence of light on human memory in the future.

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Working memory: Unemployed but still doing day labor

Behavioral and Brain Sciences ◽

10.1017/s0140525x03550166 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 26 (6) ◽

pp. 760-769

Author(s):

Daniel S. Ruchkin ◽

Jordan Grafman ◽

Katherine Cameron ◽

Rita S. Berndt

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Neural Circuits ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Relevant Information ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Memory Retention ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Target Article

The goal of our target article is to establish that electrophysiological data constrain models of short-term memory retention operations to schemes in which activated long-term memory is its representational basis. The temporary stores correspond to neural circuits involved in the perception and subsequent processing of the relevant information, and do not involve specialized neural circuits dedicated to the temporary holding of information outside of those embedded in long-term memory. The commentaries ranged from general agreement with the view that short-term memory stores correspond to activated long-term memory (e.g., Abry, Sato, Schwartz, Loevenbruck & Cathiard [Abry etal.], Cowan, Fuster, Grote, Hickok & Buchsbaum, Keenan, Hyönä & Kaakinen [Keenan et al.], Martin, Morra), to taking a definite exception to this view (e.g., Baddeley, Düzel, Logie & Della Sala, Kroger, Majerus, Van der Linden, Colette & Salmon [Majerus et al.], Vallar).

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