Remembering: An Activity of Mind and Brain

I present the case for viewing human memory as a set of dynamic processes rather than as structural entities or memory stores. This perspective stems largely from the construct of levels of processing, reflecting work I published with Robert Lockhart and with Endel Tulving. I describe the personal and professional contexts in which these and other ideas evolved, and I discuss criticisms of the ideas and our responses to critics. I also show how later versions of a processing approach to memory may fit with current findings and theories in memory research. In related work I have been involved in studies of cognitive aging, and I describe some theoretical and empirical points deriving from this aspect of my research efforts. Finally, I deal briefly with some experiments and reflections on divided attention, consolidation, and bilingualism and touch upon the neural bases of a processing approach.

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Levels of Processing and the Cue Overload Principle*

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology ◽

10.1080/14640748008401836 ◽

1980 ◽

Vol 32 (3) ◽

pp. 427-434 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Alan J. Parkin

Keyword(s):

Semantic Processing ◽

Levels Of Processing ◽

Similar Material ◽

Memory Research ◽

Processing Level ◽

Processing Approach ◽

Different Types ◽

Cue Overload

This experiment investigates the influence of processing level on the extent of Cue Overload (Watkins and Watkins, 1975, 1976) produced by semantically similar or dissimilar interpolated material. The results showed that semantically similar material only led to increased cue overload if it, itself, was processed semantically. Non-semantic processing of the same types of material failed to reveal any difference between conditions. The results are seen as supportive of the Levels of Processing approach to memory research, since they reinforce the view that different types of orienting task result in qualitative differences in the nature of processing itself. Additionally the results provide some information about the locus of cue overload effects.

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Final Reflections and Future Trends

Remembering ◽

10.1093/oso/9780192895226.003.0010 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 233-260

Author(s):

Fergus I. M. Craik

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Divided Attention ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Memory Systems ◽

Final Conclusion ◽

Future Trends ◽

Big Picture ◽

Mind And Brain ◽

Similarities And Differences

In this final chapter some big-picture topics are described and discussed. These include the concept of hierarchies in memory theory and an assessment of their validity in the levels-of-processing (LOP) framework (e.g., does the construct of “LOP” connote a continuum of depth or a series of qualitative stages?). A further topic is the hypothesized organization of representations from episodic-specific to abstract-general. Other issues in encoding, retrieval, and their interactions are considered, including some recent findings on the effects of divided attention (DA) at the time of retrieval. Hintzman’s ideas on reminding and recurrence, and also Jacoby’s concept of source-constrained retrieval, are discussed and evaluated. The author’s perspective on working memory is described, including the view that there is no need to invoke discrete stores or memory buffers. Some further issues in cognitive aging are discussed, including a proximal-distal hypothesis of when deficits are found. The similarities and differences between perception and memory are assessed, and the author’s perspective on the concept of memory systems is described and discussed. The final conclusion is that remembering should be viewed as an activity of mind and brain.

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The Cultural Foundation of Human Memory

Annual Review of Psychology ◽

10.1146/annurev-psych-070920-023638 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 72 (1) ◽

pp. 151-179 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Qi Wang

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Episodic Memory ◽

Memory Function ◽

Human Memory ◽

Memory Representation ◽

Future Directions ◽

Memory Research ◽

Cultural Elements ◽

Mind And Brain ◽

The Mind

Human memory, as a product of the mind and brain, is inherently private and personal. Yet, arising from the interaction between the organism and its ecology in the course of phylogeny and ontogeny, human memory is also profoundly collective and cultural. In this review, I discuss the cultural foundation of human memory. I start by briefly reflecting on the conception of memory against a historical and cultural background. I then detail a model of a culturally saturated mnemonic system in which cultural elements constitute and condition various processes of remembering, focusing on memory representation, perceptual encoding, memory function, memory reconstruction, memory expression, and memory socialization. Then I discuss research on working memory, episodic memory, and autobiographical memory as examples that further demonstrate how cultural elements shape the processes and consequences of remembering and lay the foundation for human memory. I conclude by outlining some important future directions in memory research.

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Remembering

10.1093/oso/9780192895226.001.0001 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Fergus I. M. Craik

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Processes ◽

Cognitive Neuroscience ◽

External Environment ◽

Human Memory ◽

Dynamic Activity ◽

Memory Research ◽

Memory Traces ◽

Mind And Brain ◽

Theoretical Standpoint

The book sets out Fergus Craik’s view of human memory as a dynamic activity of mind and brain. In this account, remembering is understood as a system of active cognitive processes, similar to the processes underlying attending, perceiving, and thinking. The book therefore extends and elaborates the concept of “levels of processing” proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972). Thus, encoding processes are essentially the mental activities involved in perceiving and understanding, and retrieval is described as the partial reactivation of these same processes. It is further suggested that “memory traces” are represented by a hierarchically organized system of analyzers, modified, sharpened, and differentiated by encounters with successive events. This account proposes that episodic and semantic memory should be thought of as levels in a continuum of specificity rather than as separate systems of memory. The book also covers Craik’s views on working memory and on changes in memory as a function of aging. In the latter case the losses are attributed largely to a difficulty with the self-initiation of appropriate encoding and retrieval operations, compensated by support from the external environment. There is a short chapter on the cognitive neuroscience of human memory, and a final chapter bringing the ideas together. The book covers the development of these ideas, illustrated substantially by experiments from Craik’s own laboratory, and also by empirical and theoretical contributions from other researchers. The final product is a broad account of current ideas and findings in contemporary memory research but viewed from Craik’s personal theoretical standpoint.

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Perspectives on human memory and cognitive aging: essays in honour of Fergus Craik. M. Naveh-Benjamin, M. Moscovitch, & H. Roediger III (Eds.). Psychology Press, New York, NY, 2001. No. of pages 422. ISBN 1-84169-040-6. Price £46.95 (hardback)

Applied Cognitive Psychology ◽

10.1002/acp.943 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 17 (7) ◽

pp. 869-870

Author(s):

Allison Wright

Keyword(s):

New York ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Human Memory

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Processing Views of Remembering

Remembering ◽

10.1093/oso/9780192895226.003.0002 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 23-40

Author(s):

Fergus I. M. Craik

Keyword(s):

Social Psychology ◽

Activity Theory ◽

Educational Psychology ◽

Human Memory ◽

Levels Of Processing ◽

Cell Assemblies ◽

Soviet Psychology ◽

1960S And 1970S ◽

The 1960S

The chapter describes and discusses previous accounts that viewed human memory as an activity of mind. These include members of the “Act Psychology School” and other early psychologists described by Boring (1950). The theoretical ideas of James (1890) and Bartlett (1932) are described and discussed, especially as emphasized in Bartlett’s 1932 classic book, Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. The notions associated with “activity theory” in Soviet psychology are outlined, and the studies in educational psychology deriving from these theories are described. The relevance of Hebb’s theory of cell assemblies is pointed out, as is the congenial work of James Jenkins and his students in the 1960s and 1970s. These latter studies are a clear forerunner of later experiments in the levels of processing tradition. Finally, Robert Crowder’s views on proceduralism are summarized and discussed.

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