Gender Expression, Sexual Orientation and Pain Sensitivity in Women

BACKGROUND: Despite a growing body of literature investigating sex differences with regard to pain, surprisingly little research has been conducted on the influence of various aspects of self-identity, including gender expression and sexual orientation, on pain sensitivity within each sex, particularly among women. In men, dispositional femininity is linked to greater clinical pain and trait masculinity is associated with higher pain thresholds.OBJECTIVES: To examine whether gender expression and sexual orientation are associated with within-sex differences in ischemic pain sensitivity in healthy young women.METHODS: A convenience sample of 172 females (mean age 21.4 years; range 18 to 30 years of age; 56.0% white, 89% heterosexual) performed an ischemic pain task in counterbalanced order. Desired levels of dispositional femininity for a preferred romantic partner and self-described levels of personal dispositional femininity were measured.RESULTS: Compared with heterosexual women, lesbian and bisexual women reported lower pain intensity ratings early in the discomfort task. Irrespective of sexual orientation, attraction to more feminine romantic partners and dispositional masculinity were correlated with lower pain intensity, and with higher pain thresholds and tolerance levels.DISCUSSION: These preliminary findings suggest that within-sex differences in sexual orientation and other aspects of identity, irrespective of biological sex, may be important to consider when examining experimental pain performance and clinical pain experiences.CONCLUSION: Larger investigations of the psychophysiological relationships among sexual orientation, gender expression and pain sensitivity are warranted. These findings may have implications for differences in clinical pain sensitivity of lesbian and bisexual women compared with heterosexual women.

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The WNBA and Athletic Performance Based on Sexual Orientation

10.31234/osf.io/ykqzc ◽

2020 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Jarryd Willis ◽

Tugral Bek Awrang Zeb ◽

Joie Haydel ◽

Juanshu Wu ◽

Samantha Yim ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sex Differences ◽

Sexual Orientation ◽

Athletic Performance ◽

Title Ix ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Lgbtq Rights ◽

Overall Performance ◽

Performance Statistics ◽

And Bisexual ◽

Available Information

The success of Title IX and the LGBTQ rights movement is embodied in the sexual orientation diversity and inclusiveness of the WNBA. This makes the WNBA one of the only sports where a comparison of athletic performance based on sexual orientation is possible. Sex differences in athletic performance emerge during puberty, due in part to increases in circulating testosterone in men. Research has also found that lesbians and bisexual women have more testosterone than straight women. Thus, it is possible that there are differences in women’s athletic performance based on sexual orientation. In this study, we used publicly available information to determine the sexual orientation of current WNBA players and compared performance statistics based on sexuality. Results showed that straight guards and forwards weighed more than lesbians, whereas the reverse was true for centers. Lesbian guards are more accurate shooters with a significantly higher field goal percentage than straight guards, and lesbian forwards recorded marginally more steals and assists than straight forwards. Straight females committed more personal fouls than lesbians, especially if they had a female coach in college (regardless of the sex of their WNBA coach). Aside from these findings, overall performance was similar regardless of athletes’ sexual orientation. We argue that no athlete should be discounted based on sexual orientation, whether straight athletes in women’s sports or gay athletes (like Michael Sam) in men’s sports.

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Sexual Orientation and Neuroanatomy: An MRI Study of Gray Matter Differences in Homosexual, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women and Men

10.31234/osf.io/zuyhp ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Victoria Klimaj ◽

Adam Safron ◽

David Sylva ◽

A.M. Rosenthal ◽

Meng Li ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sex Differences ◽

Sexual Orientation ◽

Heterosexual Men ◽

Homosexual Men ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Brain Areas ◽

Whole Brain ◽

Men And Women ◽

Heterosexual Women ◽

Subcortical Volumes

In this study, we attempted to replicate past work focusing on differences in neuroanatomical structures between heterosexual and homosexual men and women. We also performed the first analyses of sexual orientation and neuroanatomy to include bisexual men and women. Sex differences in raw subcortical volumes were consistent with past work and a broader literature on sex differences, showing larger raw subcortical volumes in male groups than female groups. However, we did not confirm past findings showing larger raw volumes in heterosexual than in homosexual men in the left thalamus or right thalamus. Additionally, we did not confirm past findings showing thicker cortices in heterosexual men than in homosexual men in visual/occipital areas (right cuneus, right lingual gyrus, right pericalcarine cortex) or a frontal area (right pars triangularis). Exploratory whole-brain analyses revealed several areas of difference between women that may be of interest for future confirmatory research. Bisexual women had smaller volumes in a region of the olfactory tubercule than heterosexual women as well as a thicker right anterior insula region than homosexual women. Homosexual women had smaller volumes in regions of the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) than both heterosexual women and bisexual women. The functional relevance of these brain areas in terms of understanding female sexual orientation is unclear. However, based on these areas, future work may wish to consider the potential social, emotional, attentional, interoceptive, or general reward-related characteristics that may differentiate women with different attraction patterns. In contrast to previous work, no differences were found between groups of men (heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual) in any of our analyses. Finally, in terms of whole-brain analyses of sex differences, heterosexual women had both thicker cortices and larger (relative to the whole brain) gray matter volume than heterosexual men in the superior frontal gyrus, in contrast to large-scale studies of sex difference. Although statistically significant at a stringent threshold (FWE-corrected), our whole-brain findings should be interpreted and generalized with caution. The heterogeneity of patterns across analyses of sexual orientation and brain structure (and even across studies of sex/gender and brain structure) suggests that findings may potentially depend upon particular sample characteristics, and potentially Type 1 error due to the testing of many different brain areas.

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Female bisexuality

10.31234/osf.io/azv7m ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Severi Luoto ◽

Markus J. Rantala

Keyword(s):

Life History ◽

Sexual Orientation ◽

Individual Differences ◽

Life History Theory ◽

Mammalian Species ◽

Brain Morphology ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Proximate Mechanisms ◽

Heterosexual Women ◽

And Bisexual

Bisexual behavior is an order of magnitude more common than exclusive homosexuality in women. Many evolutionary hypotheses on sexual orientation have focused on homosexuality, particularly in men, yet there has recently been a growing recognition that male and female homosexuality may have different evolutionary origins, and that the various forms of nonheterosexuality in the female sexual orientation spectrum may arise via discrete evolutionary–developmental mechanisms. Evolutionarily informed sex research therefore has the fascinating task of understanding the whole spectrum of female sexual orientation—from heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, and bisexual women through to exclusively homosexual women, and from feminine femmes to masculine butches—including the proximate mechanisms and ultimate functions that underlie that variation. Here, we address that task by applying Tinbergen’s four questions to analyze female bisexuality, synthesizing existing research on proximate mechanisms, ontogeny, phylogeny, and ultimate functions. Research in psychology and behavioral sciences indicates that bisexual women comprise a group distinct from heterosexual women and, on some metrics, even from lesbian women: bisexual women have more male-typical personality traits, more unrestricted sociosexual attitudes and behaviors, higher sexual responsiveness, earlier reproduction, higher substance use, higher incarceration rates, and worse health outcomes than heterosexual women. There is broad evidence from across mammalian species which indicates that individual differences in prenatal exposure to sex hormones creates individual differences in brain morphology, cognition, behavioral predispositions, and even life outcomes. They are typically studied in a sex differences framework, but there is now enough evidence to suggest that sexual orientation differences along these parameters can also be robust and informative. We review 10 ultimate-level hypotheses on the evolution of female bisexuality and conclude that four hypotheses—balanced polymorphism of masculinity, sexually antagonistic selection, hormonally mediated fast life history strategy, and byproduct—are currently best supported by evidence. These hypotheses are also consilient with the wealth of neurodevelopmental evidence on the masculinization of the brain and behavior which is thought to underlie variation in female sexual orientation. By synthesizing ultimate functions with proximate mechanisms—combined with powerful mid-level frameworks such as life history theory—evolutionary scientists are in a stronger position to provide a comprehensive account of the phenotypic variation observed in the female sexual orientation spectrum.

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Oversampling as a methodological strategy for the study of self-reported health among lesbian, gay and bisexual populations

Scandinavian Journal of Public Health ◽

10.1177/1403494817717407 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 45 (6) ◽

pp. 637-646 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Norman Anderssen ◽

Kirsti Malterud

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Population Based ◽

Group Differences ◽

Bisexual Men ◽

Lesbian Women ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Heterosexual Women ◽

Reported Health ◽

And Bisexual ◽

And Gender

Aims: Epidemiological research on lesbian, gay and bisexual populations raises concerns regarding self-selection and group sizes. The aim of this research was to present strategies used to overcome these challenges in a national population-based web survey of self-reported sexual orientation and living conditions—exemplified with a case of daily tobacco smoking. Methods: The sample was extracted from pre-established national web panels. Utilizing an oversampling strategy, we established a sample including 315 gay men, 217 bisexual men, 789 heterosexual men, 197 lesbian women, 405 bisexual women and 979 heterosexual women. We compared daily smoking, representing three levels of differentiation of sexual orientation for each gender. Results: The aggregation of all non-heterosexuals into one group yielded a higher odds ratio (OR) for non-heterosexuals being a daily smoker. The aggregation of lesbian and bisexual women indicated higher OR between this group and heterosexual women. The full differentiation yielded no differences between groups except for bisexual compared with heterosexual women. Conclusions: The analyses demonstrated the advantage of differentiation of sexual orientation and gender, in this case bisexual women were the main source of group differences. We recommend an oversampling procedure, making it possible to avoid self-recruitment and to increase the transferability of findings.

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Comparison of Treatment Outcomes Between Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Heterosexual Individuals Receiving a Primary Care Psychological Intervention

Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy ◽

10.1017/s1352465817000583 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 46 (3) ◽

pp. 332-349 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Katharine A. Rimes ◽

Matthew Broadbent ◽

Rachel Holden ◽

Qazi Rahman ◽

David Hambrook ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Primary Care ◽

Sexual Orientation ◽

Treatment Outcomes ◽

Gay Men ◽

Heterosexual Men ◽

Psychological Interventions ◽

Bisexual Men ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Heterosexual Women ◽

And Bisexual

Background: Lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals experience more anxiety and depression than heterosexual people. Little is known about their comparative treatment response to psychological interventions. Aims: To compare sociodemographic/clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes across sexual orientation groups, for adults receiving primary care psychological interventions from Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) services in London, adjusting for possible confounders. Method: Data from 188 lesbian women, 222 bisexual women, 6637 heterosexual women, 645 gay men, 75 bisexual men and 3024 heterosexual men were analysed from pre-treatment and last treatment sessions. Males and females were analysed separately. Results: Before treatment, lesbian and bisexual women were more likely to report clinical levels of impairment (Work and Social Adjustment Scale) than heterosexual women; there were no significant differences in depression (PHQ-9) or anxiety (GAD-7). Bisexual men were more likely to meet depression caseness than gay men but less likely to meet anxiety caseness than gay or heterosexual men. Compared with heterosexual women, lesbian and bisexual individuals showed smaller reductions in depression and impairment, controlling for age, ethnicity, employment, baseline symptoms, number of sessions and intervention type. Bisexual women experienced significantly smaller reductions in anxiety than heterosexual women and were less likely to show recovery or reliable recovery. There were no significant differences in treatment outcomes between gay, bisexual and heterosexual men. Conclusions: Reasons for poorer outcomes in lesbian and bisexual women require investigation, for example lifetime trauma or stigma/discrimination regarding gender or sexual orientation in everyday life or within therapy services.

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Military service experiences and reasons for service separation among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in a large military cohort

BMC Public Health ◽

10.1186/s12889-021-12420-1 ◽

2022 ◽

Vol 22 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Felicia R. Carey ◽

Isabel G. Jacobson ◽

Keren Lehavot ◽

Cynthia A. LeardMann ◽

Claire A. Kolaja ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Military Service ◽

Gay And Bisexual Men ◽

Service Members ◽

Heterosexual Men ◽

Bisexual Men ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Heterosexual Women ◽

And Bisexual ◽

The Military

Abstract Background The well-being of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals is a topic of increasing concern within the military where significant institutional barriers, targeted aggression, and differential organizational policies such as “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell” have historically contributed to experiences of exclusion and discrimination. However, limited research has examined specific military and post-separation experiences among LGB service members and veterans. The goal of this study was to examine differences in military and service separation experiences by sexual orientation among a large representative sample of United States service members and veterans. Methods Survey data from the 2016 Millennium Cohort Study follow-up questionnaire were used to assess sexual orientation and multiple outcomes of interest: military experiences (morale, feelings about the military, missed workdays) and service separation experiences (reasons for separation, post-separation employment). The associations between sexual orientation (LGB versus heterosexual) and each of these outcomes were evaluated in a series of adjusted logistic regression models, stratified by sex when interactions were observed. Results Of the 99,599 participants, 3.4% identified as LGB. In adjusted models, LGB service members had significantly higher odds than heterosexual service members of feeling: unimpressed by the quality of unit leadership, unsupported by the military, and negative about the military overall. Bisexual women were more likely than heterosexual women to feel less unit camaraderie; both gay and bisexual men felt less camaraderie than heterosexual men. LGB veterans were more likely than heterosexual peers of the same sex to separate from service due to unplanned administrative reasons. Compared to heterosexual women, lesbian and bisexual women were more likely to separate from service due to dissatisfaction with promotions/pay and disability/medical reasons, while bisexual women specifically separated due to dissatisfaction with leadership and incompatibility with the military. Gay and bisexual men also reported separating due to incompatibility with the military, but only bisexual men were more likely to report separating due to disability/medical reasons compared to heterosexual men. Conclusions Less positive military- and separation-specific experiences disproportionately affected LGB service members in this study. Promoting inclusion and increasing support for LGB service members may improve satisfaction with military service and retention.

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Born this way: Sexual orientation beliefs and their correlates in lesbian and bisexual women.

Journal of Counseling Psychology ◽

10.1037/cou0000209 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 64 (5) ◽

pp. 560-573 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

James S. Morandini ◽

Alexander Blaszczynski ◽

Daniel S. J. Costa ◽

Alexandra Godwin ◽

Ilan Dar-Nimrod

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

And Bisexual ◽

Sexual Orientation Beliefs

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Coming Out to Parents in Lesbian and Bisexual Women: The Role of Internalized Sexual Stigma and Positive LB Identity

Frontiers in Psychology ◽

10.3389/fpsyg.2020.609885 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 11 ◽

Author(s):

Roberto Baiocco ◽

Jessica Pistella ◽

Mara Morelli

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Coming Out ◽

Future Research ◽

Lesbian Women ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Sexual Stigma ◽

Positive Identity ◽

And Bisexual ◽

Internalized Sexual Stigma

The experience of “coming out” (CO) to parents is often a crucial event in the lives of lesbian and bisexual (LB) women, associated with lower internalized sexual stigma (ISS) and higher positive LB identity. Few studies have compared the experiences of LB women in the CO process. Rather, most prior research has either: (1) not addressed bisexuality or eliminated bisexual individuals from the analysis; (2) combined bisexual women and bisexual men in the same sexual orientation group; or (3) examined bisexual participants alongside lesbian women and gay men, using a single monolithic measure. Thus, the present research aimed at investigating the role of ISS and positive LB identity in inhibiting or encouraging CO to parents in a sample of 241 lesbian women (Mage = 27.61, SD = 7.19) and 186 bisexual women (Mage = 25.23, SD = 5.81), aged 18–40 years. Most participants reported that they had already revealed their sexual orientation to their mother (69%) and their father (52%). More lesbian women had CO to both their mother and their father than had bisexual women. These lesbian women reported lower levels of ISS and higher levels of LB positive identity relative to bisexual women. On average, CO to mothers occurred at age 20 (SD = 5.54), while CO to fathers occurred at age 22 (SD = 5.63). LB women did not differ in the average age of CO to mothers or fathers, or in parental reactions to CO. Finally, ISS was found to affect the process of CO to both parents via positive identity (bootstrapping estimate = −0.26, SE = 0.08, 95% CI = −0.43, 0.11), whereas sexual orientation was not found to moderate the path from ISS to CO to both parents. The present study contributes to our understanding of the differences between LB women when developing their sexual orientation, highlighting the relevance of a positive LB identity for CO to parents. Research and clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

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Review: Prevalence and Co-Occurrence of Addictions Among Sexual Minority Subgroups

Annals of LGBTQ Public and Population Health ◽

10.1891/lgbtq-2020-0007 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 1 (3) ◽

pp. 210-248

Author(s):

Ryan Ruppert ◽

Steve Sussman ◽

Shanna K. Kattari

Keyword(s):

Illicit Drugs ◽

Current Data ◽

Behavioral Addictions ◽

Addictive Behaviors ◽

Bisexual Men ◽

Lesbian Women ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Heterosexual Women ◽

Internet Sex ◽

And Bisexual

The purpose of this study is to present current data on the prevalence and co-occurrence of 12 substance and behavioral addictions among adult cisgender sexual minorities (SM). We utilized MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar databases to systematically review the literature on alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, illicit drugs, gambling, eating/food, Internet, sex, love, exercise, work, and shopping within the SM community. Peer reviewed empirical articles in English from 2000 to 2019 were included. When possible, we compared prevalence and co-occurrence statistics between four SM subgroups (stratified into lesbian women, bisexual women, gay men, and bisexual men), and used heterosexual women and men as reference groups. Studies were scant within each area of addiction with the most studies focusing on addictions acknowledged within the DSM-V (alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, illicit drugs, gambling). Significantly fewer studies addressed the prevalence and co-occurrence of behavioral addictions across SM subgroups. Most studies assessing addiction among SM populations either categorize SMs into a single group or only stratify by gender. However, even with limited research, the findings from this review suggest that significant differences in addictive behaviors exist when comparing one SM subgroup to another. There is a strong need for more research that quantifies these disparities through prevalence and co-occurrence statistics.

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The Nexus of Sexual Orientation and Gender in the Determination of Earnings

ILR Review ◽

10.1177/001979390305600405 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 56 (4) ◽

pp. 622-642 ◽

Cited By ~ 91

Author(s):

John M. Blandford

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Marital Status ◽

Wage Differentials ◽

General Social Survey ◽

Gay And Bisexual Men ◽

Bisexual Men ◽

Bisexual Women ◽

Unobserved Effects ◽

And Bisexual ◽

And Gender

This analysis of 1989–96 General Social Survey data reveals how sexual orientation and gender jointly influence earnings outcomes. Gay and bisexual men experienced a 30–32% income disadvantage relative to heterosexual peers, while lesbian and bisexual women enjoyed a wage premium of 17–23%. The disparate earnings effects of sexual orientation across genders suggest that workplace discrimination may be only one factor accounting for measured wage differentials associated with sexual orientation. These findings qualify pioneering work on the subject that indicated that wage differentials were attributable largely to employer bias. A further analysis that distinguishes the separate effects of gender, marital status, and sexual orientation suggests that differentials long attributed to marital status may in part reflect previously unobserved effects of sexual orientation.

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