The Polar Code and the Arctic Marine Environment: Assessing the Regulation of the Environmental Risks of Shipping

Abstract The Polar Code adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has established a new vessel-source pollution prevention standard for Arctic waters, as well as the Antarctic area. The Polar Code consists of mandatory rules and guidance provisions supplementing international rules to address a range of environmental risks posed by ships in polar operations. This article explores the scope of application of the Polar Code and its interface with other pertinent IMO instruments. The article comments on the limits of application of Polar Code standards in addressing pollution prevention and how they are further nourished, supplemented or facilitated by other IMO instruments, both with respect to pollution prevention as well as other environmental risks posed by shipping in the Arctic context. The article identifies shortcomings and gaps and concludes with possible options for Arctic coastal States that may wish to raise environmental standards to mitigate particular risks.

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The imo Polar Code: The Emerging Rules of Arctic Shipping Governance

The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law ◽

10.1163/15718085-12341376 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 30 (4) ◽

pp. 674-699 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Jiayu Bai

Keyword(s):

Environmental Protection ◽

International Maritime Organization ◽

The Arctic ◽

International Code ◽

Polar Code ◽

Arctic Shipping

In the context of the melting icecap and the growing shipping activity in the Arctic, the International Maritime Organization (imo) spent several years preparing polar navigation rules aimed at providing appropriate safety and environmental protection standards. The rules underwent several transformations before emerging as the binding International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code). The Polar Code is expected to enter into force on 1 January 2017. This paper examines the formation and development of the Polar Code and its principles and provisions, expounds upon the unique characteristics of the Code, and discusses expected future practices.

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International Regulation of Heavy Fuel Oil Use by Vessels in Arctic Waters

The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law ◽

10.1163/15718085-13431095 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 34 (3) ◽

pp. 513-536

Author(s):

Zhen Sun

Keyword(s):

Marine Environment ◽

International Maritime Organization ◽

Fuel Oil ◽

Heavy Fuel Oil ◽

International Regulation ◽

Potential Effectiveness ◽

Polar Code ◽

Arctic Communities

AbstractThe use and carriage of heavy fuel oil (HFO) as fuel by vessels in Arctic waters present unique challenges to the fragile marine environment and vulnerable Arctic communities. Discussions on the regulation of HFO use in Arctic waters have undergone several transformations, from strong resistance by several states before and during the negotiations of the Polar Code, to stalemate, to reluctant evaluation of options, before the emergence of a potential mandatory ban. An HFO ban is expected to be adopted by the International Maritime Organization in 2021 at the earliest. This article examines the formation, development and application of the ban on HFO use by vessels in Arctic waters, and discusses the potential effectiveness of the ban.

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Analysis of heavy fuel oil use by ships operating in Canadian Arctic waters from 2010 to 2018

FACETS ◽

10.1139/facets-2019-0067 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

pp. 304-327

Author(s):

Nicolien van Luijk ◽

Jackie Dawson ◽

Alison Cook

Keyword(s):

Spatial Analysis ◽

Marine Environment ◽

Canadian Arctic ◽

International Maritime Organization ◽

Fuel Oil ◽

The Arctic ◽

Heavy Fuel Oil ◽

Baffin Bay ◽

Bulk Carriers ◽

General Cargo

In 2018, The International Maritime Organization, officially proposed consideration of a ban on heavy fuel oil (HFO) use by ships in the Arctic, because of the widely accepted understanding that HFO presents a threat to the marine environment. There is currently a lack of understanding of the scale and scope of HFO use by ships operating in Canadian Arctic waters, thus it is difficult to comprehensively evaluate the effect that such a ban may have in mitigating risk from HFO use. In this study, we conducted a spatial analysis of HFO use among ships operating in Canadian Arctic waters between 2010 and 2018. Our findings show that approximately 37% of the total number of ships that have travelled through the Canadian Arctic between 2010 and 2018 use HFO, and nearly all of these ships fall within three vessel categories: general cargo, bulk carriers, and tanker ships. In addition, HFO-fueled ships made up approximately 45% of the total distance (kilometres) travelled by all vessels between 2010 and 2018. The data also show that the majority of HFO use occurs in certain geographic areas, such as Baffin Bay near Pond Inlet and the Hudson Strait.

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The EU Influence on Norwegian Domestic Legislation for the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment

The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law ◽

10.1163/15718085-13320006 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 33 (2) ◽

pp. 415-435 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Elise Johansen

Keyword(s):

European Union ◽

Marine Environment ◽

The Arctic ◽

European Economic Area ◽

The European Union ◽

Environmental Legislation ◽

Economic Area ◽

Domestic Legislation ◽

Marine Areas ◽

The Eu

Abstract In the last several decades, the European Union (EU) has demonstrated its intention to play an important role in supporting Arctic cooperation and helping to meet the challenges now facing the region. Norway, one of the five Arctic coastal states, and the EU have cooperated closely in this regard, particularly through the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA Agreement). This article examines how Norway’s domestic legislation applicable to its Arctic marine areas has been influenced by the development of EU environmental legislation. Specifically, this paper provides a discussion and analysis of the relevant Norwegian laws and mechanisms used to regulate how EU environmental legislation has been incorporated into Norway’s domestic legislation through the EEA Agreement.

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Metagenomic Analysis of Stress Genes in Microbial Mat Communities from Antarctica and the High Arctic

Applied and Environmental Microbiology ◽

10.1128/aem.06354-11 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 78 (2) ◽

pp. 549-559 ◽

Cited By ~ 103

Author(s):

Thibault Varin ◽

Connie Lovejoy ◽

Anne D. Jungblut ◽

Warwick F. Vincent ◽

Jacques Corbeil

Keyword(s):

High Arctic ◽

Environmental Stresses ◽

The Arctic ◽

Functional Responses ◽

Protein Coding ◽

Content Type ◽

Stress Genes ◽

Cyanobacterial Genes ◽

Shock Proteins ◽

The Antarctic

ABSTRACTPolar and alpine microbial communities experience a variety of environmental stresses, including perennial cold and freezing; however, knowledge of genomic responses to such conditions is still rudimentary. We analyzed the metagenomes of cyanobacterial mats from Arctic and Antarctic ice shelves, using high-throughput pyrosequencing to test the hypotheses that consortia from these extreme polar habitats were similar in terms of major phyla and subphyla and consequently in their potential responses to environmental stresses. Statistical comparisons of the protein-coding genes showed similarities between the mats from the two poles, with the majority of genes derived fromProteobacteriaandCyanobacteria; however, the relative proportions differed, with cyanobacterial genes more prevalent in the Antarctic mat metagenome. Other differences included a higher representation ofActinobacteriaandAlphaproteobacteriain the Arctic metagenomes, which may reflect the greater access to diasporas from both adjacent ice-free lands and the open ocean. Genes coding for functional responses to environmental stress (exopolysaccharides, cold shock proteins, and membrane modifications) were found in all of the metagenomes. However, in keeping with the greater exposure of the Arctic to long-range pollutants, sequences assigned to copper homeostasis genes were statistically (30%) more abundant in the Arctic samples. In contrast, more reads matching the sigma B genes were identified in the Antarctic mat, likely reflecting the more severe osmotic stress during freeze-up of the Antarctic ponds. This study underscores the presence of diverse mechanisms of adaptation to cold and other stresses in polar mats, consistent with the proportional representation of major bacterial groups.

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