AbstractBreast cancer patients with disseminated metastatic disease still have a very unfavorable prognosis. Investigations into the molecular mechanisms that underlie metastasis formation have a high priority and can possibly result in improved therapeutic interventions. The process of oncogenic epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) has recently become a focus in cancer research because it encompasses many of the phenotypic traits characteristic of metastatic cells, e.g., increased motility, invasion, anoikis resistance, immunosuppression, and cancer stem cell potential. A number of central cellular signaling pathways and transcription factors have been implied in the control of EMT and metastasis formation, among them signal originating from the activation of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ), epithelial growth factor, Wnt, Notch, and Hedgehog pathways. We have investigated the contribution of TGFβ signaling to metastasis-related cellular properties. TGFβ signaling can have tumor-suppressive and -promoting effects depending on the tumor type and the stage of tumor progression. TGFβ can inhibit the proliferation of mammary epithelial cells (MECs), but it can also induce EMT, invasion, and metastasis, possibly through Smad-independent signaling events. We investigated the effects of TGFβ pathway inhibition on the proliferation, differentiation, and invasion of both normal and malignant MECs. shRNA-mediated downregulation of the Smad4 protein in non-tumorigenic HC11 and tumorigenic 4T1 cells promotes the invasiveness of both cell lines. Mammary gland reconstitution studies, with primary MECs expressing shSmad4, resulted only in subtle effects on the glandular morphogenesis. Orthotopic transplantation of shSmad4-transduced 4T1 tumor cells caused the accelerated growth of mammary tumors and enhanced colonization and macroscopic lung metastases when compared to control cells. Surprisingly, the expression of Smad4 was restored, and a strong activation of Stat3 was found in the metastatic lesions present in the lungs. These lesions express metastatic factors, such as angiopoietin-like-4 and the inhibitor of DNA binding/differentiation 1. We suggest that the downregulation of Smad4 inhibits the tumor-suppressive effects of TGFβ signaling and enhances tumor growth. The downregulation, however, was only transient, and the reactivation of Smad4 expression caused the reversal of EMT, mesenchymal to epithelial transition, and thereby promoted metastasis formation in the lungs.
Stop! In the name of transforming growth factor-β: keeping estrogen receptor-α-positive mammary epithelial cells from proliferating
