Cyclooxygenase (COX) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the metabolic conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins (PGs), including prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a major mediator of inflammation and angiogenesis. Herein, we report that macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), a potent proinflammatory and growth-promoting factor found at elevated concentrations in the peritoneal fluid of women with endometriosis and active endometriosis lesions, acts directly on ectopic endometrial cells to stimulate the synthesis of COX-2, the inducible form of COX, and the release of PGE2. MIF treatment strongly activated p38 and ERK MAPK, and specific inhibitors of both pathways completely blocked basal and MIF-induced PGE2 synthesis. Whereas p38 inhibitors negatively affected the stimulated synthesis of COX-2 and that of PGE2, ERK inhibitors only decreased the production of PGE2. These findings show for the first time a direct role for MIF in the up-regulation of COX-2 synthesis and PGE2 secretion in ectopic endometrial cells. They further indicate that whereas p38 and ERK MAPK signaling pathways both play a significant role in the regulation of basal and MIF-induced synthesis of PGE2 by ectopic endometrial cells, only p38 kinase is involved in the regulation of COX-2 expression in these cells. This suggests that MIF acts at more than one level to stimulate the synthesis of PGE2 and triggers the coordinate activation of multiple enzymes in the biosynthesis pathway. Our data provide evidence for a novel mechanism by which MIF can induce a proinflammatory phenotype in ectopic endometrial cells, and favor the establishment of endometriosis and its related clinical symptoms.
Dengue Virus Enhances Thrombomodulin and ICAM-1 Expression through the Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor Induction of the MAPK and PI3K Signaling Pathways
