Noninvasive imaging is a powerful tool for understanding the in vivo behavior of drug delivery systems and successfully translating promising platforms into the clinic. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), nano-sized vesicles with a lipid bilayer produced by nearly all cell types, are emerging platforms for drug delivery. To date, the biodistribution of EVs has been insufficiently investigated, particularly using nuclear imaging-based modalities such as positron emission tomography (PET). Herein, we developed positron-emitting radiotracers to investigate the biodistribution of EVs isolated from various human cell sources using PET imaging. Chelator conjugation did not impact EVs size and subsequent radiolabeling was found to be highly efficient and stable with Zr-89 (t1/2 = 78.4 h). In vivo tracking of EVs isolated from bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs EVs), primary human macrophages (Mϕ EVs), and a melanoma cell line (A375 EVs) were performed in immunocompetent ICR mice. Imaging studies revealed excellent in vivo circulation for all EVs, with a half-life of approximately 12 h. Significantly higher liver uptake was observed for Mϕ EVs, evidencing the tissue tropism of EV and highlighting the importance of carefully choosing EVs cell sources for drug delivery applications. Conversely, the liver, spleen, and lung uptake of the BMSC EVs and A375 EVs was relatively low. We also investigated the impact of immunodeficiency on the biodistribution of BMSC EVs using NSG mice. The spleen uptake drastically increased in NSG mice, which could confound results of therapeutic studies employing this mouse models. Lastly, PET imaging studies in a melanoma tumor model demonstrated efficient tumor uptake of BMSC EVs following intravenous injection. Overall, these imaging studies evidenced the potential of EVs as carriers to treat a variety of diseases, such as cancer or in regenerative medicine applications, and the necessity to understand EVs tropism to optimize their therapeutic deployment.
Systematic assessment in an animal model of the angiogenic potential of different human cell sources for therapeutic revascularization