The paper describes an investigation of a subjectively distinguishable element of high speed jet noise known as ‘crackle’. ‘Crackle’ cannot be characterized by the normal spectral description of noise. It is shown to be due to intense spasmodic short-duration compressive elements of the wave form. These elements have low energy spread over a wide frequency range. The crackling of a large jet engine is caused by groups of sharp compressions in association with gradual expansions. The groups occur at random and persist for some 10−1s, each group containing about 10 compressions, typically of strength 5 × 10−3 atmos at a distance of 50 m. The skewness of the amplitude probability distribution of the recorded sound quantifies crackle, though the recording process probably changes the skewness level. Skewness values in excess of unity have been measured; noises with skewness less than 0·3 seem to be crackle free. Crackle is uninfluenced by the jet scale, but varies strongly with jet velocity and angular position. The jet temperature does not affect crackle, neither does combustion. Supersonic jets crackle strongly whether or not they are ideally expanded through convergent-divergent nozzles. Crackle is formed (we think) because of local shock formation due to nonlinear wave steepening at the source and not from long-term nonlinear propagation. Such long-term effects are important in flight, where they are additive. Some jet noise suppressors inhibit crackle.
On the contributions of David T. Blackstock to understanding nonlinear propagation of jet noise