The Generation Effect Revisited: Fewer Generation Constraints Enhances Item and Context Memory

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew P. McCurdy ◽  
Ryan Leach ◽  
Eric D. Leshikar
Keyword(s):  
Generation Effect ◽  
Word Fragment ◽  
Item Memory ◽  
Task Constraint ◽  
Free Response ◽  
Generation Task ◽  
Constraint Generation ◽  
Memory Representations ◽  
Context Memory

Self-generated information is often better remembered than non-self-generated information. This effect has been robust for item memory (i.e., the content of information) across many different experiments, but inconsistent for context memory (e.g., memory for the extraneous details of information, such as source). Previous studies examining the generation effect, however, have often applied constraints on the generation task possibly limiting the memory benefit from self-generation. In three experiments, we compared item and context memory for a lower-constraint generation task (i.e., free response to a cue word) relative to higher-constraint generation tasks (Exp. 1 & 2: scramble; Exp. 3: word fragment). Results showed that participants had better item and context memory in the lower-constraint compared to higher-constraint generation tasks. Overall, these experiments suggest that that the mnemonic benefits of self-generation depend on the level of task constraint. This study further advances the idea that self-generation is a powerful mnemonic that leads to enriched memory representations for both the item and context, especially when fewer generation constraints are imposed.

scholarly journals Fewer Constraints Enhance the Generation Effect for Source Memory in Younger, but not Older Adults

2019 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 168-184 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew P. McCurdy ◽  
Ryan C. Leach ◽  
Eric D. Leshikar
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Associative Memory ◽  
Source Memory ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Generation Effect ◽  
Relational Processing ◽  
Generation Task ◽  
Younger Adults ◽  
Constraint Generation ◽  
Context Memory

AbstractThe generation effect is the memory benefit for information that is self-generated compared to read. This effect is robust for both younger and older adults. Recent work with younger adults has shown that the generation effect for context memory (i.e., contextual details associated with an episode) can be increased when there are fewer rather than greater experimental constraints placed on what participants can generate. This increase in context memory is attributable to enhanced relational processing. Given older adults’ deficits in context memory the present study tested whether fewer generation constraints would similarly improve the generation effect for contextual details in older adults. In this study, we examined age differences in item and context (i.e., source and associative) memory across three different tasks comprising the encoding of cue-target pairs: a lower-constraint generation task (i.e., free response to cue, such as assist – ____), a higher-constraint generation task (i.e., solving an anagram, such as assist – hlpe), and a read task (i.e., simply reading the cue-target pair, such as assist – help). Both age groups showed improved item and context memory for materials studied during the generation tasks (both lower- and higher-constraint) compared to the read task. However, only younger adults showed increased source memory for lower-constraint compared to higher-constraint generation, whereas older adults showed equivalent source and associative memory for both lower- and higher-constraint generation tasks. These findings suggest both age groups benefit from self-generation, but older adults may benefit less from conditions that enhance relational processing (lower-constraint generation) in younger adults.

scholarly journals Fewer Generation Constraints Increase the Generation Effect for Item and Source Memory through Enhanced Relational Processing

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew P. McCurdy ◽  
Allison Sklenar ◽  
Andrea N. Frankenstein ◽  
Eric D. Leshikar
Keyword(s):  
Source Memory ◽  
Theoretical Work ◽  
Cued Recall ◽  
Generation Effect ◽  
Item Memory ◽  
Control Task ◽  
Relational Processing ◽  
Constraint Generation ◽  
Font Color ◽  
Context Memory

Memory is often better for information that is self-generated versus read (i.e., the generation effect). Theoretical work attributes the generation effect to two mechanisms: enhanced item-specific and relational processing (i.e., the two-factor theory). Recent work has demonstrated that the generation effect increases when generation tasks place lower, relative to higher, constraints on what participants can self-generate. This study examined whether the effects of generation constraint on memory might be attributable to either mechanism of the two-factor theory. Across three experiments, participants encoded word pairs in two generation conditions (lower- and higher-constraint) and a read control task, followed by a memory test for item memory and two context memory details (source and font color). The results of these experiments support the idea that lower-constraint generation increases the generation effect via enhanced relational processing, as measured through both recognition and cued recall tasks. Results further showed that lower-constraint generation improves context memory for conceptual context (source), but not perceptual context (color), suggesting that this enhanced relational processing may extend to conceptually related details of an item. Overall, these results provide more evidence that fewer generation constraints increase the generation effect and implicate enhanced relational processing as a mechanism for this improvement.

scholarly journals Fewer Constraints Enhance the Generation Effect for Source Memory in Younger, but not Older Adults

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew P. McCurdy ◽  
Ryan Leach ◽  
Eric D. Leshikar
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Associative Memory ◽  
Source Memory ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Generation Effect ◽  
Relational Processing ◽  
Generation Task ◽  
Younger Adults ◽  
Constraint Generation ◽  
Context Memory

The generation effect is the memory benefit for information that is self-generated compared to read. This effect is robust for both younger and older adults. Recent work with younger adults has shown that the generation effect for context memory (i.e., contextual details associated with an episode) can be increased when there are fewer rather than greater experimental constraints placed on what participants can generate. This increase in context memory is attributable to enhanced relational processing. Given older adults’ deficits in context memory the present study tested whether fewer generation constraints would similarly improve the generation effect for contextual details in older adults. In this study, we examined age differences in item and context (i.e., source and associative) memory across three different tasks comprising the encoding of cue-target pairs: a lower-constraint generation task (i.e., free response to cue, such as assist – ____), a higher-constraint generation task (i.e., solving an anagram, such as assist – hlpe), and a read task (i.e., simply reading the cue-target pair, such as assist – help). Both age groups showed improved item and context memory for materials studied during the generation tasks (both lower- and higher-constraint) compared to the read task. However, only younger adults showed increased source memory for lower-constraint compared to higher-constraint generation, whereas older adults showed equivalent source and associative memory for both lower- and higher-constraint generation tasks. These findings suggest both age groups benefit from self-generation, but older adults may benefit less from conditions that enhance relational processing (lower-constraint generation) in younger adults.

scholarly journals Theories of the Generation Effect and the Impact of Generation Constraint: A Meta-analytic Review

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew P. McCurdy ◽  
Wolfgang Viechtbauer ◽  
Allison Sklenar ◽  
Andrea N. Frankenstein ◽  
Eric D. Leshikar
Keyword(s):  
Boundary Conditions ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Generation Effect ◽  
Item Memory ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Memory Mechanism ◽  
Analytic Review ◽  
Future Work ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Context Memory

The generation effect is the memory benefit for self-generated compared to read or experimenter provided information. In recent decades, numerous theories have been proposed to explain the memory mechanism(s) and boundary conditions of the generation effect. In this meta-analysis and theoretical review, we analyzed 126 articles (310 experiments, 1653 estimates) to assess seven prominent theories to determine which theories are supported by the existing literature. Because some theories focus on item memory (memory for the generated target) and others focus on context memory (memory for details associated with the generated target), we examined memory effects for both types of details (item, context) in this meta-analysis. Further, we assessed the influence of generation constraint (how constrained participants are to a generate a certain response), which recent work has shown impacts the magnitude of the generation effect. Overall, the results of this meta-analysis support some theoretical accounts, but not others, as explanatory mechanisms of the generation effect. Results further showed that generation constraint significantly moderates the magnitude of the generation effect, suggesting that this factor should be rigorously investigated in future work. Overall, this meta-analysis provides a review and examination of generation effect theories, and reveals important areas of future research.

Generation and Associative Encoding in Young and Old Adults

2008 ◽  
Vol 55 (1) ◽  
pp. 23-30 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laurence Taconnat ◽  
Charlotte Froger ◽  
Mathilde Sacher ◽  
Michel Isingrini
Keyword(s):  
Task Difficulty ◽  
Generation Effect ◽  
Elderly Adults ◽  
Generation Task ◽  
Younger Adults ◽  
Old Adults ◽  
Strength Of Association ◽  
Target Words

Abstract. The generation effect (i.e., better recall of the generated items than the read items) was investigated with a between-list design in young and elderly participants. The generation task difficulty was manipulated by varying the strength of association between cues and targets. Overall, strong associates were better recalled than weak associates. However, the results showed different generation effect patterns according to strength of association and age, with a greater generation effect for weak associates in younger adults only. These findings suggest that generating weak associates leads to more elaborated encoding, but that elderly adults cannot use this elaborated encoding as well as younger adults to recall the target words at test.

scholarly journals Item memory, context memory and the hippocampus: fMRI evidence

2012 ◽  
Vol 50 (13) ◽  
pp. 3070-3079 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael D. Rugg ◽  
Kaia L. Vilberg ◽  
Julia T. Mattson ◽  
Sarah S. Yu ◽  
Jeffrey D. Johnson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Item Memory ◽  
Context Memory

The generation effect in primed word-fragment completion reexamined

1992 ◽  
Vol 54 (2) ◽  
pp. 103-109 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ulrich Olofsson ◽  
Lars-G�ran Nilsson
Keyword(s):  
Generation Effect ◽  
Word Fragment ◽  
Word Fragment Completion ◽  
Primed Word

scholarly journals Mnemonic prediction errors promote detailed memories

2021 ◽  
Vol 28 (11) ◽  
pp. 422-434
Author(s):  
Oded Bein ◽  
Natalie A. Plotkin ◽  
Lila Davachi
Keyword(s):  
Memory Trace ◽  
Theoretical Models ◽  
Item Memory ◽  
Prediction Errors ◽  
Memory Enhancement ◽  
Object A ◽  
Memory Traces ◽  
Memory Representations ◽  
Memory Advantage ◽  
Violated Expectations

When our experience violates our predictions, it is adaptive to update our knowledge to promote a more accurate representation of the world and facilitate future predictions. Theoretical models propose that these mnemonic prediction errors should be encoded into a distinct memory trace to prevent interference with previous, conflicting memories. We investigated this proposal by repeatedly exposing participants to pairs of sequentially presented objects (A → B), thus evoking expectations. Then, we violated participants’ expectations by replacing the second object in the pairs with a novel object (A → C). The following item memory test required participants to discriminate between identical old items and similar lures, thus testing detailed and distinctive item memory representations. In two experiments, mnemonic prediction errors enhanced item memory: Participants correctly identified more old items as old when those items violated expectations during learning, compared with items that did not violate expectations. This memory enhancement for C items was only observed when participants later showed intact memory for the related A → B pairs, suggesting that strong predictions are required to facilitate memory for violations. Following up on this, a third experiment reduced prediction strength prior to violation and subsequently eliminated the memory advantage of violations. Interestingly, mnemonic prediction errors did not increase gist-based mistakes of identifying old items as similar lures or identifying similar lures as old. Enhanced item memory in the absence of gist-based mistakes suggests that violations enhanced memory for items’ details, which could be mediated via distinct memory traces. Together, these results advance our knowledge of how mnemonic prediction errors promote memory formation.

scholarly journals Mnemonic prediction errors promote detailed memories

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Oded Bein ◽  
Natalie A. Plotkin ◽  
Lila Davachi
Keyword(s):  
Memory Trace ◽  
Theoretical Models ◽  
Item Memory ◽  
Prediction Errors ◽  
Memory Enhancement ◽  
Object A ◽  
Memory Traces ◽  
Memory Representations ◽  
Memory Advantage ◽  
Violated Expectations

When our experience violates our predictions, it is adaptive to update our knowledge to promote a more accurate representation of the world and facilitate future predictions. Theoretical models propose that these mnemonic prediction errors should be encoded into a distinct memory trace to prevent interference with previous, conflicting memories. We investigated this proposal by repeatedly exposing participants to pairs of sequentially presented objects (A->B), thus evoking expectations. Then, we violated participants’ expectations by replacing the second object in the pairs with a novel object (A->C). The following item memory test required participants to discriminate between identical old items and similar lures, thus testing detailed and distinctive item memory representations. In two experiments, mnemonic prediction errors enhanced item memory: participants correctly identified more old items as old when those items violated expectations during learning, compared to items that did not violate expectations. This memory enhancement for C items was only observed when participants later showed intact memory for the related A->B pairs, suggesting that strong predictions are required to facilitate memory for violations. Following up on this, a third experiment reduced prediction strength prior to violation and subsequently eliminated the memory advantage of violations. Interestingly, mnemonic prediction errors did not increase gist-based mistakes of identifying old items as similar lures or identifying similar lures as ‘old’. Enhanced item memory in the absence of gist-based mistakes suggests that violations enhanced memory for items’ details, which could be mediated via distinct memory traces. Together, these results advance our knowledge of how mnemonic prediction errors promote memory formation

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document