scholarly journals Accuracy and precision of polar lower stratospheric temperatures from reanalyses evaluated from A-Train CALIOP and MLS, COSMIC GPS RO, and the equilibrium thermodynamics of supercooled ternary solutions and ice clouds

2018 ◽  
Vol 18 (3) ◽  
pp. 1945-1975 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alyn Lambert ◽  
Michelle L. Santee
Keyword(s):  
Pressure Range ◽  
Equilibrium Thermodynamics ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Ice Clouds ◽  
Warm Bias ◽  
Frost Point ◽  
Ternary Solutions ◽  
Accuracy And Precision ◽  
Temperature Reference ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds

Abstract. We investigate the accuracy and precision of polar lower stratospheric temperatures (100–10 hPa during 2008–2013) reported in several contemporary reanalysis datasets comprising two versions of the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA and MERRA-2), the Japanese 55-year Reanalysis (JRA-55), the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) interim reanalysis (ERA-I), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (NCEP-CFSR). We also include the Goddard Earth Observing System model version 5.9.1 near-real-time analysis (GEOS-5.9.1). Comparisons of these datasets are made with respect to retrieved temperatures from the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate (COSMIC) Global Positioning System (GPS) radio occultation (RO) temperatures, and independent absolute temperature references defined by the equilibrium thermodynamics of supercooled ternary solutions (STSs) and ice clouds. Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) observations of polar stratospheric clouds are used to determine the cloud particle types within the Aura MLS geometric field of view. The thermodynamic calculations for STS and the ice frost point use the colocated MLS gas-phase measurements of HNO3 and H2O. The estimated bias and precision for the STS temperature reference, over the 68 to 21 hPa pressure range, are 0.6–1.5 and 0.3–0.6 K, respectively; for the ice temperature reference, they are 0.4 and 0.3 K, respectively. These uncertainties are smaller than those estimated for the retrieved MLS temperatures and also comparable to GPS RO uncertainties (bias  <  0.2 K, precision  >  0.7 K) in the same pressure range. We examine a case study of the time-varying temperature structure associated with layered ice clouds formed by orographic gravity waves forced by flow over the Palmer Peninsula and compare how the wave amplitudes are reproduced by each reanalysis dataset. We find that the spatial and temporal distribution of temperatures below the ice frost point, and hence the potential to form ice polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in model studies driven by the reanalyses, varies significantly because of the underlying differences in the representation of mountain wave activity. High-accuracy COSMIC temperatures are used as a common reference to intercompare the reanalysis temperatures. Over the 68–21 hPa pressure range, the biases of the reanalyses with respect to COSMIC temperatures for both polar regions fall within the narrow range of −0.6 K to +0.5 K. GEOS-5.9.1, MERRA, MERRA-2, and JRA-55 have predominantly cold biases, whereas ERA-I has a predominantly warm bias. NCEP-CFSR has a warm bias in the Arctic but becomes substantially colder in the Antarctic. Reanalysis temperatures are also compared with the PSC reference temperatures. Over the 68–21 hPa pressure range, the reanalysis temperature biases are in the range −1.6 to −0.3 K with standard deviations  ∼  0.6 K for the CALIOP STS reference, and in the range −0.9 to +0.1 K with standard deviations  ∼  0.7 K for the CALIOP ice reference. Comparisons of MLS temperatures with the PSC reference temperatures reveal vertical oscillations in the MLS temperatures and a significant low bias in MLS temperatures of up to 3 K.

scholarly journals Accuracy and precision of lower stratospheric polar reanalysis temperatures evaluated from A-train CALIOP and MLS, COSMIC GPS RO, and the equilibrium thermodynamics of supercooled ternary solutions and ice clouds

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alyn Lambert ◽  
Michelle L. Santee
Keyword(s):  
Pressure Range ◽  
Reanalysis Data ◽  
Wave Activity ◽  
Field Of View ◽  
Ice Clouds ◽  
Warm Bias ◽  
Ternary Solutions ◽  
Accuracy And Precision ◽  
Temperature Reference ◽  
Standard Deviations

Abstract. We investigate the accuracy and precision of polar lower stratospheric temperatures (100–10 hPa during 2008–2013) reported in several contemporary reanalysis data sets comprising two versions of the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA and MERRA-2), the Japanese 55-year Reanalysis (JRA-55), the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) interim reanalysis (ERA-Interim), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (NCEP-CFSR). We also include the Goddard Earth Observing System Model version 5.9.1 near real-time analysis (GEOS-5.9.1). Comparisons of these datasets are made with respect to retrieved temperatures from the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate (COSMIC) Global Positioning System (GPS) Radio Occultation (RO) temperatures, and independent absolute temperature references defined by the equilibrium thermodynamics of supercooled ternary solutions (STS) and ice clouds. Cloud–Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) observations of polar stratospheric clouds are used to determine the cloud particle types within the Aura MLS geometric field of view. The thermodynamic calculations for STS and the ice frost point use the colocated MLS gas-phase measurements of HNO3 and H2O. The estimated accuracy and precision for the STS temperature reference, over the 68 to 21 hPa pressure range, is 0.6–1.5 K and 0.3–0.6 K, respectively; for the ice temperature reference they are 0.4 K and 0.3 K, respectively. These uncertainties are smaller than those estimated for the retrieved MLS temperatures and also comparable to GPS RO uncertainties (accuracy  0.7 K) in the same pressure range. We examine a case study of the time-varying temperature structure associated with layered ice clouds formed by orographic gravity waves forced by flow over the Palmer peninsula, and compare how the wave amplitudes are reproduced by each reanalysis data set. We find that the spatial and temporal distribution of temperatures below the ice frost point, and hence the potential to form ice PSCs in model studies driven by the reanalyses, varies significantly because of the underlying differences in the representation of mountain wave activity. We have therefore used temperature variances, calculated from the COSMIC GPS RO temperature data (80–20 hPa), and imposed a variance threshold to selectively remove profiles with suspected enhanced wave activity. We examine the resulting improvement to the fidelity of the reanalysis temperatures. High accuracy COSMIC temperatures are used as a common reference to intercompare the reanalysis temperatures and, although the COSMIC data are routinely assimilated by each reanalysis scheme except for MERRA, we find that there are significant departures from uniformity in the structure of the meridional and altitude temperature differences. Over the 68–21 hPa pressure range, the biases of the reanalyses with respect to COSMIC temperatures for both polar regions fall within the narrow range of −0.6 K to +0.5 K. The corresponding standard deviations of the differences are ~ 0.8 K at 100 hPa and increase exponentially with altitude, as expected because of the gradually worsening GPS RO measurement precision. GEOS-5.9.1, MERRA, MERRA-2 and JRA-55 have predominantly cold biases, whereas ERA-I has a predominantly warm bias. NCEP-CFSR has a warm bias in the Arctic, but becomes substantially colder in the Antarctic. For the comparisons of the reanalysis temperatures with the thermodynamically calculated temperature references, we use the concept of an instrument field of view (FOV) fill-fraction. The distribution of CALIOP PSC types within the MLS geometric FOV are used to mitigate the effects of disparate types of PSCs occurring in the much larger MLS sample volume. This removes the speckle effect that arises either because of uncertainty in the detection classification from random noise in the CALIOP signals or from the microphysical effects of small-scale temperature fluctuations on the formation of PSC particles. We select viewing scenes with the requirement that 75 % or more of the MLS geometric FOV is filled with CALIOP PSC detections of the same PSC type classification. Scenes satisfying this requirement for CALIOP STS detections we denote as LIQ, and for CALIOP ice detections we denote as ICE. Over the 68–21 hPa pressure range, the reanalysis temperature biases are in the range −1.6 K to −0.3 K with standard deviations ~ 0.6 K for the LIQ reference, and in the range −0.9 K to +0.1 K with standard deviations ~ 0.7 K for the ICE reference. Comparisons of MLS temperatures with the LIQ and ICE reference temperatures reveal vertical oscillations in the MLS temperatures, and a significant low bias in MLS temperatures of up to 3 K.

10 years of Polar Stratospheric Clouds lidar measurements at the French antarctic station Dumont d’Urville

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Florent Tencé ◽  
Julien Jumelet ◽  
Alain Sarkissian ◽  
Slimane Bekki ◽  
Philippe Keckhut
Keyword(s):  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Atmospheric Composition ◽  
Polar Regions ◽  
Primary Role ◽  
Atmospheric Conditions ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Ice Clouds ◽  
Yearly Average ◽  
Lidar Measurements ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds

&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) play a primary role in polar stratospheric ozone depletion processes. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;Aside from recent improvements in both spaceborne PSCs monitoring as well as investigations on PSCs microphysics and modeling, there are still uncertainties associated to solid particle formation and their denitrification potential. In that regard, groundbased instruments deliver detailed and valuable measurements that complement the global spaceborne coverage.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Operated since 1989 at the French antarctic station Dumont d&amp;#8217;Urville (DDU) in the frame of the international Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC), the Rayleigh/Mie/Raman lidar provides over the years a solid dataset to feed both process and classification studies, by monitoring cloud and aerosol occurrences in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. Located on antarctic shore (66&amp;#176;S - 140&amp;#176;E), the station has a privileged access to polar vortex dynamics. Measurements are weather-dependent with a yearly average of 130 nights of monitoring. Expected PSC formation temperatures are used to evaluate the whole PSC season occurrences.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;We hereby present a consolidated dataset from 10 years of lidar measurements using the 532nm backscatter ratio, the aerosol depolarisation and local atmospheric conditions to help in building an aerosol/cloud classification. Using the different PSC classes and associated optical properties thresholds established in the recent PSC CALIOP classification, we build a picture of the 2007-2019 events, from march to october.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Overall, the DDU PSC pattern is very consistent with expected typical temperature controlled microphysical calculations. Outside of background sulfate aerosols and anomalies related to volcanic activity (like in 2015), Supercooled Ternary Solution (STS) particles are the most observed particle type, closely followed by Nitric Acid Trihydrate (NAT). ICE clouds are less but regularly observed. ICE clouds also have to be cleary separated from cirrus clouds, raising the issue of accurate dynamics tropopause calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Validation of the spaceborne measurements as well as multiple signatures of volcanic or even biomass originated aerosol plumes strengthens the need for groundbased monitoring &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;especially in polar regions where instrumental facilities remain sparse.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

scholarly journals Simultaneous occurrence of polar stratospheric clouds and upper-tropospheric clouds caused by blocking anticyclones

2012 ◽  
Vol 12 (8) ◽  
pp. 20007-20032
Author(s):  
M. Kohma ◽  
K. Sato
Keyword(s):  
Polar Vortex ◽  
Simultaneous Occurrence ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Stratospheric Polar Vortex ◽  
Height Range ◽  
Blocking High ◽  
Ternary Solutions ◽  
Tall Structure ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Lidar Observations

Abstract. This study statistically examines the simultaneous appearance of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) and upper tropospheric clouds (UCs) using satellite lidar observations for five austral winters of 2007–2011. The time series of PSC occurrence in the height range of 15–25 km are significantly correlated with those of UC in 9–11 km. The UCs observed simultaneously with PSCs reported in previous case studies are possibly located around and slightly above the tropopause (~7–8 km) rather than in the troposphere. It is shown that the simultaneous occurrence of PSCs and UCs is frequently associated with blocking highs having large horizontal scales (several thousand kilometers) and tall structure (up to a~height of ~15 km). The longitudinal variation of blocking high frequency accords well with that of the simultaneous occurrence frequency of PSCs and UCs. This coincidence is clearer when the analysis is limited to the latitudinal regions inside the stratospheric polar vortex. This fact suggests that the blocking highs provide a~preferable condition for the simultaneous occurrence of PSCs and UCs. Moreover, PSC compositions are investigated as a~function of relative-longitude of the anticyclones including blocking highs. It is seen that relatively high proportions of STS (super-cooled ternary solutions), Ice, and Mix2 (mixture of nitric acid trihydrate and STS) types are distributed to windward of, around, and to leeward of the anticyclones in the westerly background flows, respectively.

scholarly journals Simulation of polar stratospheric clouds in the chemistry-climate-model EMAC via the submodel PSC

2010 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 2071-2108 ◽  
Author(s):  
O. Kirner ◽  
R. Ruhnke ◽  
J. Buchholz-Dietsch ◽  
P. Jöckel ◽  
C. Brühl ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nitric Acid ◽  
Growth Factor ◽  
Atmospheric Chemistry ◽  
Climate Model ◽  
Surface Growth ◽  
Ice Formation ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Ternary Solutions ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds

Abstract. The submodel PSC of the ECHAM5/MESSy Atmospheric Chemistry model (EMAC) has been developed to simulate the main types of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC). The parameterisation of the supercooled ternary solutions (STS, type 1b PSC) in the submodel is based on Carslaw et al. (1995b), the thermodynamical approach to simulate ice particles (type 2 PSC) on Marti and Mauersberger (1993). For the formation of nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) particles (type 1a PSC) two different parameterisations exist. The first one is based on an instantaneous thermodynamical approach from Hanson and Mauersberger (1988), the second one (new implemented by Kirner, 2008) considers the growth of the NAT particles with aid of a surface growth factor based on Carslaw et al. (2002). Via namelist switches the NAT parameterisation, as well as some parameters for the NAT and ice formation can be chosen. This publication explains the background of the submodel PSC and the use of the submodel with the goal to simulate realistic PSC in EMAC.

scholarly journals Depolarization ratio of Polar Stratospheric Clouds in coastal Antarctica: profiling comparison analysis between a ground-based Micro Pulse Lidar and the space-borne CALIOP

2012 ◽  
Vol 5 (5) ◽  
pp. 8051-8084 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. Córdoba-Jabonero ◽  
J. L. Guerrero-Rascado ◽  
D. Toledo ◽  
M. Parrondo ◽  
M. Yela ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Spatial Inhomogeneity ◽  
Comparison Analysis ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Ice Clouds ◽  
Height Range ◽  
Detection And Identification ◽  
Percentage Difference ◽  
Suitable Index ◽  
Micro Pulse Lidar ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds

Abstract. Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) play an important role in polar ozone depletion. In particular ice clouds, type PSC-II, with respect to the type PSC-I (nitric acid clouds) produce the most significant effects. Therefore PSC characterization, mainly focused on PSC-II discrimination is needed. The backscattering (R) and volume linear depolarization (δV) ratios are the parameters usually used in lidar measurements for PSC detection and identification. In this work, an improved version of the standard NASA/Micro Pulse Lidar (MPL-4), which includes a built-in depolarization detection module, has been used for PSC observations above the coastal Antarctic Belgrano II station (Argentina, 77.9° S 34.6° W, 256 m a.s.l.) since 2009. Examination of the MPL-4 δV feature as a suitable index for PSC-type discrimination is based on the analysis of the two-channel data, i.e. the parallel (p-) and perpendicular (s-) polarized MPL signals. This study focuses on the comparison of simultaneous δV-profiles as obtained from ground-based MPL-4 measurements during three Antarctic winters with those reported from the space-borne lidar CALIOP aboard the CALIPSO satellite in the same period (48 simultaneous cases are analysed for 2009–2011 austral winter times). Two different variables are considered for the comparison analysis between both lidar datasets in order to test the degree of agreement: the correlation coefficient (CC) and the percentage difference (BIAS). Results indicate a relatively good correlation between the δV-profiles once MPL-4 depolarization calibration parameters are applied. This correlation is based on the linear fitted height-range of the layered structure, obtaining CC values higher than 0.5 for 54% (26 cases) out of all the analysed cases (48 in total). However, less satisfactory results are found when the BIAS test is used in the comparison procedure to test the degree of agreement between the lidar datasets. A predominance of negative BIAS values are observed showing that the MPL-4 δV values are underestimated with respect to CALIOP data; however, differences between the MPL-4 datasets are no greater than an 11% (absolute value) with respect to CALIOP values. Moreover, the agreement appears to be unexpectedly independent of the CALIPSO ground-track overpass distance from the Belgrano II station. Consequently, differences between the δV datasets are not dominated by spatial inhomogeneity of the PSC field.

scholarly journals A-train CALIOP and MLS observations of early winter antarctic polar stratospheric clouds and nitric acid in 2008

2011 ◽  
Vol 11 (10) ◽  
pp. 29283-29356
Author(s):  
A. Lambert ◽  
M. L. Santee ◽  
D. L. Wu ◽  
J. H. Chae
Keyword(s):  
Nitric Acid ◽  
Gas Phase ◽  
Wave Activity ◽  
Equilibrium Curve ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Frost Point ◽  
Time Histories ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
The Antarctic ◽  
Temperature Time

Abstract. A-train Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) and Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) observations are used to investigate the development of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) and the gas phase nitric acid distribution in the early 2008 Antarctic winter. Observational evidence of gravity-wave activity is provided by Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) radiances and infrared spectroscopic detection of nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) in PSCs is obtained from the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS). Goddard Earth Observing System Data Assimilation System (GEOS-5 DAS) analyses are used to derive Lagrangian trajectories and to determine temperature-time histories of air parcels. We use CALIOP backscatter and depolarization measurements to classify PSCs and the MLS measurements to determine the corresponding gas phase HNO3 as a function of temperature. For liquid PSCs the uptake of HNO3 follows the theoretical equilibrium curve for supercooled ternary solutions (STS), but at temperatures about 1 K lower as determined from GEOS-5. In the presence of solid phase PSCs, above the ice frost-point, the HNO3 depletion occurs over a wider range of temperatures (+2 to −7 K) distributed about the NAT equilibrium curve. Rapid gas phase HNO3 depletion is first seen by MLS from from 23–25 May 2008, consisting of a decrease in the volume mixing ratio (parts per billion by volume) from 14 ppbv to 7 ppbv on the 46–32 hPa (hectopascal) pressure levels and accompanied by a 2–3 ppbv increase by renitrification at the 68 hPa pressure level. Temperature-time histories of air parcels demonstrate that the depleted HNO3 region is more clearly correlated with prior low temperature exposure of a few kelvin above the frost-point than with either the region bounded by the NAT existence temperature threshold or the region of minimum temperatures. From the combined data we infer the presence of large-size NAT particles with effective radii >5–7 μm and low NAT number densities <1×10−3 cm−3. This denitrification event is observed close to the pole in the Antarctic vortex before synoptic temperatures first fall below the ice frost point and before the widespread occurrence of large-scale NAT PSCs at altitudes 18–26 km in a polar freezing belt. The NAT outbreak is similar to an event previously reported from MIPAS observations in mid-June 2003 and is again linked to NAT formation via ice-seeding following an episode of mountain wave activity detected by AIRS. Subsequent wave-ice formation in the rapid cooling phases over the Antarctic Peninsula and Ellsworth Mountains is detected here by CALIOP and MIPAS. The NAT clouds appear to be composed of relatively small particles with estimated effective radii of around 1 μm and high NAT number densities >0.2 cm−3.

scholarly journals Spectroscopic evidence for NAT, STS, and ice in MIPAS infrared limb emission measurements of polar stratospheric clouds

2006 ◽  
Vol 6 (5) ◽  
pp. 1201-1219 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Höpfner ◽  
B. P. Luo ◽  
P. Massoli ◽  
F. Cairo ◽  
R. Spang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Spectral Band ◽  
Michelson Interferometer ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Density Profiles ◽  
Ice Clouds ◽  
Spectroscopic Evidence ◽  
Cloud Optical Thickness ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
The Antarctic ◽  
Lidar Observations

Abstract. We have analyzed mid-infrared limb-emission measurements of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) by the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) during the Antarctic winter 2003 with respect to PSC composition. Coincident Lidar observations from McMurdo were used for comparison with PSC types 1a, 1b and 2. Application of new refractive index data of β-NAT have allowed to accurately simulate the prominent spectral band at 820 cm-1 observed by MIPAS at the location where the Lidar instrument observed type 1a PSCs. Broadband spectral fits covering the range from 780 to 960 cm-1 and from 1220 to 1490 cm-1 showed best agreement with the MIPAS measurements when spectroscopic data of NAT were used to simulate the MIPAS spectra. MIPAS measurements collocated with Lidar observations of Type 1b and Type 2 PSCs could only be reproduced by assuming a composition of supercooled ternary H2SO4/HNO3/H2O solution (STS) and of ice, respectively. Particle radius and number density profiles derived from MIPAS were generally consistent with the Lidar observations. Only in the case of ice clouds, PSC volumes are partly underestimated by MIPAS due to large cloud optical thickness in the limb-direction. A comparison of MIPAS cloud composition and Lidar PSC-type determination based on all available MIPAS-Lidar coincident measurements revealed good agreement between PSC-types 1a, 1b and 2, and NAT, STS and ice, respectively. We could not find spectroscopic evidence for the presence of nitric acid dihydrate (NAD) from MIPAS observations of PSCs over Antarctica in 2003.

scholarly journals Simulation of polar stratospheric clouds in the chemistry-climate-model EMAC via the submodel PSC

2011 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 169-182 ◽  
Author(s):  
O. Kirner ◽  
R. Ruhnke ◽  
J. Buchholz-Dietsch ◽  
P. Jöckel ◽  
C. Brühl ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nitric Acid ◽  
Growth Factor ◽  
Atmospheric Chemistry ◽  
Climate Model ◽  
Surface Growth ◽  
Thermodynamic Approach ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Ternary Solutions ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds

Abstract. The submodel PSC of the ECHAM5/MESSy Atmospheric Chemistry model (EMAC) has been developed to simulate the main types of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC). The parameterisation of the supercooled ternary solutions (STS, type 1b PSC) in the submodel is based on Carslaw et al. (1995b), the thermodynamic approach to simulate ice particles (type 2 PSC) on Marti and Mauersberger (1993). For the formation of nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) particles (type 1a PSC) two different parameterisations exist. The first is based on an instantaneous thermodynamic approach from Hanson and Mauersberger (1988), the second is new implemented and considers the growth of the NAT particles with the aid of a surface growth factor based on Carslaw et al. (2002). It is possible to choose one of this NAT parameterisation in the submodel. This publication explains the background of the submodel PSC and the use of the submodel with the goal of simulating realistic PSC in EMAC.

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