The lose-to-win strategy of the weak: intraspecific parasitism via egg abduction in a termite

Predation by larger conspecifics poses a major threat to small juveniles in many animal species. However, in social insects, raids perpetrated by large colonies may provide smaller colonies with opportunities for parasitization. Herein, in the termite Reticulitermes speratus , we demonstrate that small incipient colonies parasitize large mature colonies through egg abduction when attacked by raiding conspecifics. We observed that the eggs of incipient colonies were brought into raiding colonies while their parents were killed during the attack. In this species, unmated females found new colonies with female–female (FF) cooperation, in addition to the typical monogamous colony foundation. Interestingly, the abducted eggs of FF pairs developed into nymphs (reproductive caste) in the raiding colonies, whereas the eggs of male–female (MF) pairs developed into workers (non-reproductive caste). Parthenogenetic eggs are known to be developmentally predisposed to becoming female reproductives owing to genomic imprinting in termites. This study demonstrates that the plundering of small colonies by larger conspecific colonies not only results in the extinction of the weaker colonies, but also serves as a strategy that incipient colonies use to obtain the reproductive position in large colonies by stealth. The results elucidate the diversity and complexity of inter-colonial interactions in social insects.

The evolution of social parasitism in Formica ants revealed by a global phylogeny

Studying the behavioral and life history transitions from a cooperative, eusocial life history to exploitative social parasitism allows for deciphering the conditions under which changes in behavior and social organization lead to diversification. The Holarctic ant genus Formica is ideally suited for studying the evolution of social parasitism because half of its 172 species are confirmed or suspected social parasites, which includes all three major classes of social parasitism known in ants. However, the life history transitions associated with the evolution of social parasitism in this genus are largely unexplored. To test competing hypotheses regarding the origins and evolution of social parasitism, we reconstructed a global phylogeny of Formica ants. The genus originated in the Old World ∼30 Ma ago and dispersed multiple times to the New World and back. Within Formica, obligate dependent colony-founding behavior arose once from a facultatively polygynous common ancestor practicing independent and facultative dependent colony foundation. Temporary social parasitism likely preceded or arose concurrently with obligate dependent colony founding, and dulotic social parasitism evolved once within the obligate dependent colony-founding clade. Permanent social parasitism evolved twice from temporary social parasitic ancestors that rarely practiced colony budding, demonstrating that obligate social parasitism can originate from a facultative parasitic background in socially polymorphic organisms. In contrast to permanently socially parasitic ants in other genera, the high parasite diversity in Formica likely originated via allopatric speciation, highlighting the diversity of convergent evolutionary trajectories resulting in nearly identical parasitic life history syndromes.

The evidence of temporary social parasitism by Polyrhachis lamellidens (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in a Camponotus obscuripes colony (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)

Polyrhachis lamellidens is a temporary socially parasitic ant whose new queen utilizes other ant species in the early stages of colony foundation. Field observations and rearing experiments suggest that Camponotus japonicus is a host species of P. lamellidens. It is presumed that Camponotus obscuripes is also a host of P. lamellidens by rearing experiments and field observations; however, there are no records of P. lamellidens workers or brood coexisting in C. obscuripes colonies in field observations, and there is no clear evidence that C. obscuripes is a natural host of P. lamellidens. We conducted detailed field observations, behavioral tests, and rearing experiments to show that C. obscuripes is a host of temporary social parasites. We found colonies with P. lamellidens queens, workers, and larvae intermixed with C. obscuripes workers in the field. Behavioral tests showed that workers of both species in mixed colonies did not attack each other and maintained nestmate recognition ability, which suggests a collaborative nestmate relationship. Furthermore, a rearing experiment confirmed social parasitism by P. lamellidens among C. obscuripes by producing a mixed brood-producing colony. These are the first field and laboratory records of temporary social parasitism involving P. lamellidens and C. obscuripes.

The evolution of social parasitism in Formica ants revealed by a global phylogeny

Studying the behavioral and life history transitions from a cooperative, eusocial life history to exploitative social parasitism allows for deciphering the conditions under which changes in behavior and social organization lead to diversification. The Holarctic ant genus Formica is ideally suited for studying the evolution of social parasitism because half of its 178 species are confirmed or suspected social parasites, which includes all three major classes of social parasitism known in ants. However, the life-history transitions associated with the evolution of social parasitism in this genus are largely unexplored. To test competing hypotheses regarding the origins and evolution of social parasitism, we reconstructed the first global phylogeny of Formica ants and representative formicine outgroups. The genus Formica originated in the Old World during the Oligocene (~30 Ma ago) and dispersed multiple times to the New World. Within Formica, the capacity for dependent colony foundation and temporary social parasitism arose once from a facultatively polygynous, independently colony founding ancestor. Within this parasitic clade, dulotic social parasitism evolved once from a facultatively temporary parasitic ancestor that likely practiced colony budding frequently. Permanent social parasitism evolved twice from temporary social parasitic ancestors that rarely practiced colony budding, demonstrating that obligate social parasitism can originate from different facultative parasitic backgrounds in socially polymorphic organisms. In contrast to inquiline ant species in other genera, the high social parasite diversity in Formica likely originated via allopatric speciation, highlighting the diversity of convergent evolutionary trajectories resulting in nearly identical parasitic life history syndromes.

Characteristics of the Two Asian Bumblebee Species Bombus friseanus and Bombus breviceps (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

This study compared the food plants, life cycle, colony development, and mating behaviour of the two Asian bumblebee species Bombus friseanus and B. breviceps, which are very important pollinators for many wild flowers and crops in local ecosystems. Both species were shown to be highly polylectic. Differences were observed in their life cycles and colony development patterns. The colony foundation rate of the field-collected queens was high in both species, 95.5% in B. friseanus and 86.5% in B. breviceps. The intervals from colony initiation to colony sizes of 30, 60, and 80 workers and to the first male and gyne emergence were significantly shorter in B. friseanus than in B. breviceps (p < 0.01). The development period of the first batch of workers showed no significant difference between the two species (p > 0.05). Compared with B. friseanus, B. breviceps produced remarkably higher numbers of workers (135 ± 30 workers/colony in B. friseanus and 318 ± 123 workers/colony in B. breviceps) and males (199 ± 46 males/colony in B. friseanus and 355 ± 166 males/colony in B. breviceps) (p < 0.01), with notable variation was found among the colonies in both species. With no significant difference in the mating rate between these two species, the copulation duration of B. breviceps (1.54 ± 0.63 min) was strikingly shorter than that of B. friseanus (27.44 ± 11.16 min) (p < 0.001). This study highlights the characteristics of the two Asian bumblebee species and will aid further studies on their conservation and agricultural pollination use.