New onshore insights into the role of structural inheritance during Mesozoic opening of the Inner Moray Firth Basin, Scotland

The Inner Moray Firth Basin (IMFB) forms the western arm of the North Sea trilete rift system that initiated mainly during the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous with the widespread development of major NE-SW-trending dip-slip growth faults. The IMFB is superimposed over the southern part of the older Devonian Orcadian Basin. The potential influence of older rift-related faults on the kinematics of later Mesozoic basin opening has received little attention, partly due to the poor resolution of offshore seismic reflection data at depth. New field observations augmented by drone photography and photogrammetry, coupled with U-Pb geochronology have been used to explore the kinematic history of faulting in onshore exposures along the southern IMFB margin. Dip-slip N-S to NNE-SSW-striking Devonian growth faults are recognised that have undergone later dextral reactivation during NNW-SSE extension. The U-Pb calcite dating of a sample from the syn-kinematic calcite veins associated with this later episode shows that the age of fault reactivation is 131.73 ± 3.07 Ma (Hauterivian). The recognition of dextral-oblique Early Cretaceous reactivation of faults related to the underlying and older Orcadian Basin highlights the importance of structural inheritance in controlling basin- to sub-basin-scale architectures and how this influences the kinematics of IMFB rifting.Supplementary material:https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5635432

Putative arthropod trace fossils from the Orcadian Basin at Achanarras Quarry (Middle Devonian of Scotland)

Achanarras Quarry, Caithness, Scotland displays a diverse fossil fish fauna which is presumed to have inhabited shallow lacustrine environments present in the Orcadian Basin during the Early to Middle Devonian. While Achanarras Quarry itself exposes deep lacustrine facies, the ecology of their depositional environment remains unknown in stark contrast to the detailed environmental reconstructions available for the lake margin. I report putative arthropod trace fossils from Achanarras Quarry which are tentatively interpreted as having been formed in a deep lake environment. Transport of doomed pioneers from the thriving shallow-water ecosystems by turbidite flows is discussed as possible scenario for their formation. The infrequent and ephemeral intrusions of animals into the deep waters of Lake Orcadie fits the broader narrative of the colonisation of deep lake ecosystems after the Devonian. These interpretations of deep-lacustrine trace fossils from Achanarras, along with their place within the narrative of lake ecosystem evolution, are made cautiously, however, given the paucity of the specimens and the uncertainty surrounding their sedimentary setting.

Fracture attribute scaling and connectivity in the Devonian Orcadian Basin with implications for geologically equivalent sub-surface fractured reservoirs

Fracture attribute scaling and connectivity datasets from analogue systems are widely used to inform sub-surface fractured reservoir models in a range of geological settings. However, significant uncertainties are associated with the determination of reliable scaling parameters in surface outcrops. This has limited our ability to upscale key parameters that control fluid flow at reservoir to basin scales. In this study, we present nine 1D-transect (scanline) fault and fracture attribute datasets from Middle Devonian sandstones in Caithness (Scotland) that are used as an onshore analogue for nearby sub-surface reservoirs such as the Clair field, west of Shetland. By taking account of truncation and censoring effects in individual datasets, our multiscale analysis shows a preference for power-law scaling of fracture length over 8 orders of magnitude (10−4 to 104 m) and kinematic aperture over 4 orders of magnitude (10−6 to 10−2 m). Our assessment of the spatial organization (clustering and topology) provides a new basis for up-scaling fracture attributes collected in outcrop- to regional-scale analogues. We show how these relationships may inform knowledge of geologically equivalent sub-surface fractured reservoirs.

Two newly identified cheiracanthid acanthodians from the Mey Flagstone Formation (Givetian, Middle Devonian) of the Orcadian Basin, Scotland

Articulated cheiracanthid acanthodians are relatively rare above the Dickosteus thrieplandi biostratigraphic zone in the Orcadian Basin, with Cheiracanthus peachi den Blaauwen, Newman & Burrow the only species identified to date. Here we describe two other taxa Fallodentus davidsoni nov. gen. et sp. and Markacanthus costulatus Valiukevičius from the Mey Flagstone Formation. F. davidsoni occurs at the base of the formation, in the Osteolepis panderi biostratigraphic zone, and is readily identified by its robust fin spines which have a wide longitudinal ridge on each side below the groove separating the leading edge from the side of the spine. The taxon is most similar to Homalacanthus concinnus (Whiteaves) from the younger (Frasnian) Escuminac Formation in Quebec, Canada. The unique specimen of Markacanthus costulatus is from the top of the Mey Flagstone Formation. This taxon was previously only known from isolated scales from the upper Narva and Aruküla Regional Stages of the east Baltic region. The dorsoventral preservation of the head region in the F. davidsoni specimens reveals clearly the position of the ceratohyal cartilages in a cheiracanthid, as well as showing for the first time that there is a basihyal cartilage anterior to the ceratohyals.

Outcrop-scale manifestations of reactivation during multiple superimposed rifting and basin inversion events: the Devonian Orcadian Basin, northern Scotland

The Devonian Orcadian Basin in Scotland hosts extensional fault systems assumed to be related to the initial formation of the basin, with only limited post-Devonian inversion and reactivation. However, a recent detailed structural study across Caithness, underpinned by published Re–Os geochronology, shows that three phases of deformation are present. North–south- and NW–SE-trending Group 1 faults are related to Devonian ENE–WSW transtension associated with sinistral shear along the Great Glen Fault during the formation of the Orcadian Basin. Metre- to kilometre-scale north–south-trending Group 2 folds and thrusts are developed close to earlier sub-basin-bounding faults and reflect late Carboniferous–early Permian east–west inversion associated with dextral reactivation of the Great Glen Fault. The dominant Group 3 structures are dextral oblique NE–SW-trending and sinistral east–west-trending faults with widespread syndeformational carbonate mineralization (± pyrite and bitumen) and are dated using Re–Os geochronology as Permian (c. 267 Ma). Regional Permian NW–SE extension related to the development of the offshore West Orkney Basin was superimposed over pre-existing fault networks, leading to local oblique reactivation of Group 1 faults in complex localized zones of transtensional folding, faulting and inversion. The structural complexity in surface outcrops onshore therefore reflects both the local reactivation of pre-existing faults and the superimposition of obliquely oriented rifting episodes during basin development in the adjacent offshore areas.Supplementary material: Stereographic projections of compiled structural data from individual fieldwork localities are available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5115228

Cheiracanthid acanthodians from the lower fossil fish-bearing horizons (Eifelian, Middle Devonian) of the Orcadian Basin, Scotland

Vertebrate fossils are extremely rare below the Achanarras fish beds and equivalent strata in northern Scotland. Here we describe the cheiracanthid acanthodians from the lowest Middle Devonian of this region, comprising partial articulated specimens and squamation patches of two species Cheiracanthus flabellicostatus and C. brevicostatus. Both species were previously only known as isolated scales from the eastern Baltic and Russia. The stratigraphic range of the two species in Scotland extends up into the Achanarras equivalent fish beds in the Moray Firth.

New insights into the kinematics and timing of superimposed rifting events through integration of offshore data, onshore fieldwork and U-Pb geochronology: Inner Moray Firth Basin, Scotland

<p>Keywords: inherited structures, fault reactivation, U-Pb geochronology</p><p>The E-W striking Inner Moray Firth Basin (IMFB) lies in the western part of the North Sea trilete rift system formed mainly in the Upper Jurassic. The IMFB has experienced a long history of superimposed rifting with plenty of uplift and fault reactivation during Cenozoic. The basin is overlying the Caledonian basement, the pre-existing Devonian-Carboniferous (Orcadian Basin) and a regionally developed Permo-Triassic basin. The potential influence of older structures related to the Orcadian Basin on the kinematics of later basin opening has received little attention, partly due to the poor resolution of seismic reflection data at depth or sparse well data.</p><p>By integrating onshore fieldwork with the interpretation of 2D and 3D seismic data and U-Pb geochronology of syndeformationally grown calcite we provide new insights into the kinematic opening of the basin as well as the role of pre-existing Devonian-Carboniferous (Orcadian) basin structures.</p><p>The Jurassic opening of the rift basin is known to be associated with major NE-SW trending faults. New detailed mapping of offshore 3D seismic data revealed that at a smaller scale en-echelon E-W to NE-SW trending faults, en-echelon N-S to NNE-SSW and NW-SE fault arrays coexist. This suggests an oblique-sinistral component associated with the major NE-SW rift basin trends. This correlates with onshore findings, which suggest that the inherited Orcadian fault systems (mainly N-S to NE-SW) have been dextrally reactivated. Sinistral WNW-SSE to NW-SE striking faults and associated transtensional folds are also present in the Devonian rocks. This later deformation is consistently associated with calcite mineralization (e.g. slickenfibers, calcite tensile veins or Riedel shear fractures). New U-Pb dating of the calcite mineralization, related to the reactivated faults, shows that the age of fault reactivation is 153 ± 0.68 Ma (Upper Jurassic).</p><p>The integration of fieldwork with subsurface interpretations and absolute dating techniques has provided better constraints on superimposed basin development, as well as explaining complexities that have hitherto been ignored. This can reduce subsurface uncertainties regarding the structural evolution of the basin and unlock the full potential of the area and significantly enhance future exploration programs.</p>

Fracture attribute scaling and connectivity in the Devonian Orcadian Basin with implications for geologically equivalent sub-surface fractured reservoirs

Fracture attribute scaling and connectivity datasets from analogue systems are widely used to inform sub-surface fractured reservoir models in a range of geological settings. However, significant uncertainties are associated with the determination of reliable scaling parameters in surface exposures, particularly for fault widths and fracture aperture. This has limited our ability to upscale key parameters that control fluid-flow at reservoir to basin scales. In this study, we present nine 1D transect (scanline) fault and fracture attribute datasets from Middle Devonian sandstones in Caithness (Scotland) that are widely used as an onshore analogue for nearby sub-surface reservoirs such as the Clair Field, West of Shetland. Our multiscale analysis confirms power-law behaviours for both length over 8 orders of magnitude (10−4 to 104) and fracture aperture and fault width (including fills) over 4 orders of magnitude (10−6 to 10−2). We also present a 2D fault and fracture topology analysis which allows assessment of the heterogeneity of connectivity and self similarity. This multiscale approach provides a new basis for upscaling micro- to meso-scale fracture attributes collected in outcrop analogues for use in static and dynamic reservoir models at reservoir to basin scales.