Beyond deviancy-training: Deviant adolescent friendships and long-term social development

Adolescent association with deviant and delinquent friends was examined for its roots in coercive parent–teen interactions and its links to functional difficulties extending beyond delinquent behavior and into adulthood. A community sample of 184 adolescents was followed from age 13 to age 27, with collateral data obtained from close friends, classmates, and parents. Even after accounting for adolescent levels of delinquent and deviant behavior, association with deviant friends was predicted by coercive parent–teen interactions and then linked to declining functioning with peers during adolescence and greater internalizing and externalizing symptoms and poorer overall adjustment in adulthood. Results are interpreted as suggesting that association with deviant friends may disrupt a core developmental task—establishing positive relationships with peers—with implications that extend well beyond deviancy-training effects.

Friendships and deviancy training in young children

Purpose – The purpose of this study was to test a new approach to deviancy training, that is, the shaping and reinforcing of disruptive behaviors in social interaction, which considers not only reinforcement, but also the modeling processes involved, as well as children's roles as either providers or receivers of the training. Design/methodology/approach – Using teacher reports and observations from a semi-naturalistic experimental setting with young children, the authors examined the prevalence of provided and received modeling and positive reinforcement, as well as the concurrent contribution of behavior problems on these processes in friendship dyads using a convenience sample of six-year-old twins (N=783; 386 boys). Frequency analyses and linear and logistic regressions were conducted. Findings – Results indicated that modeling and positive reinforcement – provided and received – were prevalent in this low-risk sample, that behavior problems were associated mainly with provided dimensions, and that deviancy training processes were also displayed between disruptive and non-disruptive children. Practical implications – Findings are relevant to peer-oriented programs designed to prevent antisocial behaviors. Prevention should target these mixed friendships where deviant behavior likely begins. Originality/value – This study provides preliminary support for a new measure of deviancy training, underscores the importance of the roles taken by children, and shows that deviancy training takes place between disruptive and non-disruptive young children.

Coercion and Contagion in Child and Adolescent Peer Relationships

Peer relationships during adolescence play a powerful role in youth adjustment. This chapter summarizes research regarding two distinct yet related social processes that have been observed within adolescent peer interactions to be predictive of problem behaviors: coercion and contagion. The mechanisms underlying these two processes are outlined, including positive reinforcement involved in deviancy training (a form of contagion) as well as escape conditioning involved in coercion. The chapter details some of the commonalities between the two processes as seen in adolescence as well as key differences and risk factors unique to each. Several recent studies that simultaneously examined both coercion and contagion in peer interactions are highlighted. Finally, a number of future directions are outlined, including advancing analytic methods to better understand bidirectional effects and further investigating the role of these processes in internalizing symptoms in adolescence.

Mechanisms and Processes of Peer Contagion

Peer contagion refers to the process of mutual influence that occurs between an individual and a peer. Historically, peer contagion has included influence on behaviors and emotions with potential negative developmental consequences, including aggression, bullying, weapon carrying, disordered eating, drug use, and depression. Increasingly, however, “contagion” of positive behaviors and emotions is being investigated as well. Nevertheless, in general, the study of peer influence and contagion processes has been a relatively recent one, with increased interest since the late 20th century. Mechanisms of peer influence like peer coercion, deviancy training, and even evolutionary and neural explanations for peer effects are all being increasingly studied in natural and laboratory settings. Much of the literature on peer influence focuses on childhood and adolescence, and for good reason. An abundance of evidence suggests that peer influence is strongest and most impactful among youth, though to a lesser degree adults can still be subject to social influence by their peers. Additionally, adolescence in particular seems to be a critical developmental period for social and neural processes critical to engaging with peers. Peer influence need not be intentional; in fact, individuals may engage in relationship behaviors that satisfy immediate needs for an audience or companionship, and inadvertently influence themselves or others. Peer influence processes are ubiquitous, occurring both in natural peer interaction settings and intervention settings that purposely aggregate children and adolescents together. The issue of peer contagion in intervention settings is an important one, with evidence suggesting at least some interventions that aggregate high-risk youth can have unintended, harmful iatrogenic effects.

Covert antisocial behavior, peer deviancy training, parenting processes, and sex differences in the development of antisocial behavior during childhood

Two longitudinal studies were used to examine the occurrence and consequences of peer deviancy training during childhood and the relative role of early covert antisocial behavior in risk for antisocial behavior in early adolescence. Peer deviancy training was apparent in a sample of at-risk first grade children, and it showed persistence and increased prevalence across the school year. Peer deviancy training, peer rejection, and unskilled parenting made additive contributions to the development of antisocial behavior during kindergarten and first grade and to antisocial behavior in fourth grade. Skilled parenting partially mitigated the association of peer deviancy training with antisocial behavior for boys. The appearance and growth of covert antisocial behavior was a predictor of fourth grade antisocial for boys and girls, more so than aggressive and overt antisocial behavior. Peer deviancy training and early covert antisocial behavior were key pathways to girls' antisocial behavior in fourth grade, and they complemented the roles of peer rejection and overt antisocial behavior for boys. The relationships of parenting and peer processes to trajectories of antisocial behavior were similar for boys and girls; but boys showed higher levels of antisocial behavior, were more involved in peer deviancy training, and were more likely to experience peer rejection.