Measuring adulterants in street drugs: Implementation of drug residue testing using portable mass spectrometry in a Northeastern U.S. harm reduction program, 2019-2020

Background: Fatal opioid overdose deaths involving illicitly manufactured fentanyl continue to escalate in the U.S. Drug checking services, as a harm reduction intervention for people who use drugs, has gained support as an effective strategy to reduce fatal overdoses. We examined implementation of drug checking services using portable devices in a syringe services program in the Northeastern U.S. Methods: Trained staff collected trace drug specimens from used paraphernalia provided by participants who requested drug checking services. All the specimens were tested using a portable mass spectrometer and sub-samples were tested for the detection of fentanyl using fentanyl testing strips. We assessed characteristics of participants who used drug checking services, self-reported types of trace specimens of substances that participants reported providing for testing, the actual mass spectrometer test results of these specimens, and agreement of the mass spectrometer and fentanyl testing strips results in detection of fentanyl and fentanyl analogues. Results: Of 155 unique participants who provided demographic information, 59% identified as male and 74.1% as White, with a mean age of 37.7 years. Based on analysis of 396 specimens tested with the portable mass spectrometer, the most common single substance detected was fentanyl (37.7%), without a trace of heroin or other adulterants, followed by methamphetamine (18.2%), and cocaine (13.6%). Fentanyl and fentanyl analogues were detected in specimens provided by participants that were reported as heroin (60.8%), cocaine (11.1%), and methamphetamine (6.7%). We found modest agreement of testing results between the mass spectrometer and fentanyl testing strips. Conclusions: Use of drug checking services within syringe services programs is in its initial test stages. Knowledge about the contents of substances purchased, and conversations between syringe services program participants and staff, have the potential to facilitate informed decisions to decrease overdose risks through engagement in harm reduction strategies. Through analysis of newly implemented drug checking services, we noted participant characteristics and dissonance between participants’ reports of the trace drug specimens submitted for testing and the actual drugs and adulterants detected by mass spectrometer results, which has implications for overdose risk, highlighting opportunities for harm reduction responses.

Use of helium as an artificial tracer to study surface water/groundwater exchange

<p><span>Groundwater - surface water interactions (SGI) fundamentally control groundwater recharge. The according dynamics are, thus, key for sustainable (drinking) water management. SGI are particularly relevant in the context of climate change and re-naturalization of canalized rivers, which might affect the availability and quality of groundwater pumped near streams. SGI are often not directly observable due to their complex spatial and temporal patterns. To complement the few available tracer methods (dye, electric conductivity, heat, etc.) to analyze SGI, we developed a novel method to quantify riverine groundwater recharge by using helium (He) as an artificial tracer. </span></p><p><span>We injected gaseous He into a Swiss pre-alpine river (river Emme, canton of Berne) through perforated tubing which was placed on the riverbed. Dissolved He (as well as Ar, N</span><span>2 </span><span>and O</span><span>2</span><span>) concentrations were continuously monitored in the river (200 m downstream of the injection point) and in a piezometer (30 m away from the river) using a portable mass spectrometer allowing quantitative gas determination under field conditions (miniRUEDI, gas-equilibrium membrane-inlet mass spectrometer (GEMIMS), Gasometrix GmbH, Brennwald et al. (2016)). The He injection consisted of two pulses, each lasting around 8 hours, during which dissolved He became supersaturated by up to three orders of magnitude compared to the natural (atmospheric) He abundance in surface waters (concentration of air saturated water (ASW)). The two associated He pulses were clearly identifiable in the groundwater and appeared in the piezometer approximately one day after the injection phases. The measured He concentrations in the groundwater were four to six times higher than ASW.</span></p><p><span>In conclusion, our experimental setup allows the identification of the freshly infiltrated river water in an adjacent groundwater body in a concise, robust and straightforward manner. Our new method is also non-toxic and can thus often be implemented with minimal constraints. Such tracer methods provide useful observations to constrain physically based, surface water/groundwater models.</span></p>

The Role of Gases in an Arsenic Contaminated Aquifer

<div> <div> <div> <p>Arsenic (As) contamination of groundwater remains a problem for many of the river deltaic areas in South-East Asia; where concentrations regularly exceed the 10μ/L currently recommended by the Word Health Organization. The focus of this study, is to determine noble and reactive gases in groundwaters at a location where As mobilisation is active, to constrain the sites hydrology in such a highly reducing environment. The small village of Van Phuc, Vietnam, presents an ideal opportunity for such research as is it well studied and accessible, however As dynamics here are still not well understood.</p> <p>Gas concentrations in 21 wells at varying depths and locations were analysed in Van Phuc with the miniRUEDI, a portable mass spectrometer capable of measuring noble gases: He, Ar, Kr, and reactive gases: CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, N<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>2</sub>. Water samples were additionally taken in copper tubes for later analysis, in an effort to date the groundwater using the <sup>3</sup>He ingrowth method. Dating such samples is particularly difficult in environments such as Van Phuc, where Methane tends to oversaturate and foster in-situ degassing of the groundwater.</p> <p>First results show a progressive depletion of the atmospheric gases (Ar, Kr and N<sub>2</sub>) with increasing CH<sub>4</sub> concentrations. He, shows the opposite behaviour such that it increases in concentration as CH<sub>4</sub> approaches in-situ saturation within the groundwater. The conceptual picture these results indicate, is that the production of Methane bubbles reduces the hydraulic conductivity in the aquifer; allowing enough time for He to accumulate, whilst simultaneously depleting Ar, Kr and N<sub>2</sub> in the groundwater as a result of their partitioning into the free CH<sub>4</sub> gas phase, which is subsequently degassed.</p> </div> </div> </div>

Fault hydromechanical characterization and CO2-saturated water injection at the CS-D experiment (Mont Terri Rock Laboratory)

<p>Understanding potential caprock failure through fault zone leakage is crucial for the safe, long-term containment of a CO<sub>2</sub> storage site. Thus, the presence of faults in caprocks will greatly affect the site characterization process in terms of the safety assessment. The CS-D experiment at the Mont Terri Lab aims at investigating caprock integrity by determining CO<sub>2</sub>-rich water mobility in a fault zone. Seven boreholes were drilled in the clay rock, all crosscutting a fault at depths of 17-30 m below the niche floor. The boreholes were fully cored, and the samples analysed in various laboratories. All boreholes were instrumented for monitoring geochemical and geomechanical changes induced by fluid injection for prolonged time, with the goal to better understand mechanisms of CO<sub>2</sub> leakage in a faulted caprock. We deployed a multi component monitoring setup measuring pressure, axial and 3D deformation, seismic activity and cross-hole electrical resistivity. A borehole was fully dedicated to the monitoring of the injection front, as well as geochemical in-situ measurements and fluid sampling. A portable mass spectrometer for direct measurements of gas has been installed in a dedicated borehole interval. Injection and monitoring activities started in December 2018, with multiple injection tests with saline water at pressures up to 6 MPa, in order to characterize the hydraulic response of the fault. A prolonged injection of CO<sub>2</sub>-saturated water at constant head pressure started in June 2019 and lasted for about 8 months. In this contribution, we will present the analysis of the data collected during the fault characterization (hydraulic, geophysics, and core analysis) as well as results of the continuous months-long injection. Preliminary interpretation of the monitoring data suggests that a fault does not necessarily form a pathway for the fluid to escape at shallow depth.</p>