Antimicrobial Activity and Degradation Ability Study on Nanoparticle-Enriched Formulations Specially Designed for the Neutralization of Real and Simulated Biological and Chemical Warfare Agents

The present work reveals a comprehensive decontamination study on real and simulated biological and chemical warfare agents (BCWA). The emphasis was on evaluating the antimicrobial activity against real biological warfare agents, such as Bacillus anthracis, and also the capacity of neutralizing real chemical warfare agents, such as mustard gas or soman, by employing three different types of organic solutions enriched with ZnO, TiO2, and zeolite nanoparticles, specially designed for decontamination applications. The capacity of decontaminating BCWA was evaluated through specific investigation tools, including surface monitoring with the swabs method, minimum inhibitory (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) evaluations, time-kill tests for microorganisms, and GC-MS for monitoring chemical agents on different types of surfaces (glass, painted metal, rubber, and cotton butyl rubber). These tests revealed high decontamination factors for BCWA even after only 10 min, accomplishing the requirements imposed by NATO standards. At the completion of the decontamination process, the formulations reached 100% efficacy for Bacillus anthracis after 10–15 min, for soman after 20–30 min, and for mustard gas in an interval comprised between 5 and 24 h depending on the type of surface analyzed.

Dynamic Regulation of the Nexus Between Stress Granules, Roquin, and Regnase-1 Underlies the Molecular Pathogenesis of Warfare Vesicants

The use of chemical warfare agents is prohibited but they have been used in recent Middle Eastern conflicts. Their accidental exposure (e.g. arsenical lewisite) is also known and causes extensive painful cutaneous injury. However, their molecular pathogenesis is not understood. Here, we demonstrate that a nexus of stress granules (SGs), integrated stress, and RNA binding proteins (RBPs) Roquin and Reganse-1 play a key role. Lewisite and its prototype phenylarsine oxide (PAO) induce SG assembly in skin keratinocytes soon after exposure, which associate with various RBPs and translation-related proteins. SG disassembly was detected several hours after exposure. The dynamics of SG assembly-disassembly associates with the chemical insult and cell damage. Enhanced Roquin and Regnase-1 expression occurs when Roquin was recruited to SGs and Regnase-1 to the ribosome while in the disassembling SGs their expression is decreased with consequent induction of inflammatory mediators. SG-targeted protein translational control is regulated by the phosphorylation-dependent activation of eukaryotic initiation factors 2α (eIF2α). Treatment with integrated stress response inhibitor (ISRIB), which blocks eIF2α phosphorylation, impacted SG assembly dynamics. Topical application of ISRIB attenuated the inflammation and tissue disruption in PAO-challenged mice. Thus, the dynamic regulation of these pathways provides underpinning to cutaneous injury and identify translational therapeutic approach for these and similar debilitating chemicals.

Reactive Organic Suspensions Comprising ZnO, TiO2, and Zeolite Nanosized Adsorbents: Evaluation of Decontamination Efficiency on Soman and Sulfur Mustard

This paper comprises an extensive study on the evaluation of decontamination efficiency of three types of reactive organic suspensions (based on nanosized adsorbents) on two real chemical warfare agents: soman (GD) and sulfur mustard (HD). Three types of nanoparticles (ZnO, TiO2, and zeolite) were employed in the decontamination formulations, for enhancing the degradation of the toxic agents. The efficacy of each decontamination solution was investigated by means of GC-MS analysis, considering the initial concentration of toxic agent and the residual toxic concentration, measured at different time intervals, until the completion of the decontamination process. The conversion of the two chemical warfare agents (HD and GD) into their decontamination products was also monitored for 24 h.

In-situ detoxification of schedule-I chemical warfare agents utilizing Zr(OH)4@W-ACF functional material for the development of next generation NBC protective gears

Chemical warfare agents (CWAs) have become a pivotal concern for the global community and spurred a wide spectrum of research for the development of new generation protective materials. Herein, a highly effective self-detoxifying filter consisting of in-situ immobilized Zirconium hydroxide [Zr(OH)4] over woven activated carbon fabric [Zr(OH)4@W-ACF] is presented for the removal of CWAs. It was prepared to harness the synergistic effect of high surface area of W-ACF, leads to high dispersion of CWAs and high phosphilicity and reactivity of [Zr(OH)4]. The synthesized materials were characterized by ATR-FTIR, EDX, SEM, TEM, XPS, TGA, and BET surface area analyzer. The kinetics of in-situ degradation of CWAs over Zr(OH)4@W-ACF were studied and found to be following the first-order reaction kinetics. The rate constant was found to be 0.244 min−1 and 2.31 × 10−2 min−1 for sarin and soman, respectively over Zr(OH)4@W-ACF. The potential practical applicability of this work was established by fabricating Zr(OH)4@W-ACF as reactive adsorbent layer for protective suit, and found to be meeting the specified criteria in terms of air permeability, tearing strength and nerve agent permeation as per TOP-08-2-501A:2013 and IS-17380:2020. The degradation products of CWAs were analyzed with NMR and GC–MS. The combined properties of dual functional textile with reactive material are expected to open up new exciting avenues in the field of CWAs protective clothing and thus find diverse application in defence and environmental sector.

Development and Human Testing of Chemical Warfare Agents and Means of Treatment of Lesions in Germany in 1933–1945

Despite serious attention to the issues of war crimes and crimes against humanity, committed on an unprecedented scale in concentration camps in Nazi Germany, the problem of medical experiments on prisoners appears to be one of the least-studied in modern Russian historiography. Moreover, no special attention was paid to testing chemical weapons on humans. The aim of this work is to review the history of the development and testing of chemical warfare agents (CWA) in Germany in 1933–1945. During the First World War, Germany was one of the leading countries in the sphere of military chemistry in the world. After the Versailles treaty this potential was largely lost as a result of the restrictions. After the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) came to power, Germany not only restored, but also increased its military power and achieved a qualitative superiority over its opponents in the field of chemical weapons. The tests of CWA, as well as the study of the effectiveness of the means and protocols for the treatment of the lesions caused by CWA, were carried out both by the military structures of the Wehrmacht and the SS, and by civilian research and academic institutions. Experiments on prisoners were carried out in the concentration camps of Dachau, Ravensbrück, Auschwitz-Birkenau, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen, Natzweiler-Struthof, Neuengamme, etc. Basically, the damaging effects of sulfur mustard and phosgene was investigated. In Auschwitz-Birkenau «a study of the action of various chemical preparations was carried out on the orders of German firms». After the war several SS doctors, who performed involuntary experiments on humans, were convicted by military tribunals for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Seven doctors were sentenced to death and executed on June 2, 1948, at the prison for war criminals in Landsberg, Bavaria. As a result of the Nuremberg trials, the Nuremberg Code was drawn up. It was the first international document that introduced ethical standards for scientists engaged in experiments on humans. It consisted of 10 principles, including the necessity of voluntary informed consent of the patient for the participation in medical experiments after providing him with full information about the nature, duration and purpose of the experiment; on the methods of its implementation; about all the perceived inconveniences and dangers associated with the experiment, and, finally, the possible consequences for the physical or mental health of the subject, which may arise as a result of his participation in the experiment.

Eco–Friendly Peelable Active Nanocomposite Films Designed for Biological and Chemical Warfare Agents Decontamination

In the context of imminent threats concerning biological and chemical warfare agents, the aim of this study was the development of a new method for biological and chemical decontamination, employing non-toxic, film-forming, water-based biodegradable solutions, using a nano sized reagent together with bentonite as trapping agents for the biological and chemical contaminants. Bentonite-supported nanoparticles of Cu, TiO2, and Ag were successfully synthesized and dispersed in a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/glycerol (GLY) aqueous solution. The decontamination effectiveness of the proposed solutions was evaluated by qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques on various micro-organisms, with sulfur mustard (HD) and dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) as contaminants. The results indicate that the peelable active nanocomposite films can be successfully used on contaminated surfaces to neutralize and entrap the hazardous materials and their degradation products. Mechanical and thermal characterization of the polymeric films was also performed to validate the decontamination solution’s potential as peelable-film generating materials. The removal efficacy from the contaminated surfaces for the tested micro-organisms varied between 93% and 97%, while for the chemical agent HD, the highest decontamination factor obtained was 90.89%. DMMP was almost completely removed from the contaminated surfaces, and a decontamination factor of 99.97% was obtained.

Utilization of Pharmaceutical Technology Methods for the Development of Innovative Porous Metasilicate Pellets with a Very High Specific Surface Area for Chemical Warfare Agents Detection

Pharmaceutical technology offers various dosage forms that can be applied interdisciplinary. One of them are spherical pellets which could be utilized as a carrier in emerging second-generation detection tubes. This detection system requires carriers with high specific surface area (SSA), which should allow better adsorption of toxic substances and detection reagents. In this study, a magnesium aluminometasilicate with high SSA was utilized along with various concentrations of volatile substances (menthol, camphor and ammonium bicarbonate) to increase further the carrier SSA after their sublimation. The samples were evaluated in terms of physicochemical parameters, their morphology was assessed by scanning electron microscopy, and the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method was utilized to measure SSA. The samples were then impregnated with a detection reagent o-phenylenediamine-pyronine and tested with diphosgene. Only samples prepared using menthol or camphor were found to show red fluorescence under the UV light in addition to the eye-visible red-violet color. This allowed the detection of diphosgene/phosgene at a concentration of only 0.1 mg/m3 in the air for samples M20.0 and C20.0 with their SSA higher than 115 m2/g, thus exceeding the sensitivity of the first-generation DT-12 detection tube.

A Systematic Review on Nerve Chemical Warfare Agents

The recent poisoning of Russian opposition figure and critic Alexei Navalny on August 20th , 2020 with a Soviet-era Novichok nerve agent reminded the world of the use of chemical agents, especially nerve agents to eliminate individual targets or for mass destruction. Nerve agents are a class of organophosphorus compounds. Soman, Sarin, Tabun, Cyclosarin, VX are a few examples of nerve agents. Nerve agents affect a person by disrupting the mechanism by which nerve signals are passed in the body. They inhibit the action of acetylcholinesterase enzyme which is responsible for the breakdown of acetylcholine neurotransmitters leading to accumulation of acetylcholine in the body. Nerve agents have a range of chemical effects on the eye, gastro-intestinal (GI) tract, Central nervous system (CNS), Respiratory system, Cardiovascular system and Neurological system. The management of nerve agent poisoning is done by administering Atropine or Pralidoxime chloride or also by administering anticonvulsants like Benzodiazepines or Diazepam. This review presents all such detailed information on this class of chemical Warfare agents. Keywords: Chemical Warfare Weapon, Nerve Agents, Acetylcholinesterase, Toxicity, Instrumentation