Degenerate circuits use distinct mechanisms to respond similarly to the same perturbation

There is considerable flexibility embedded within neural circuits. For example, separate modulatory inputs can differently configure the same underlying circuit but these different configurations generate comparable, or degenerate, activity patterns. However, little is known about whether these mechanistically different circuits in turn exhibit degenerate responses to the same inputs. We examined this issue using the crab (Cancer borealis) stomatogastric nervous system, in which stimulating the modulatory projection neuron MCN1 and bath applying the neuropeptide CabPK II elicit similar gastric mill (chewing) rhythms in the stomatogastric ganglion, despite differentially configuring the same neural circuit. We showed previously that bath applying the peptide hormone CCAP or stimulating the muscle stretch-sensitive sensory neuron GPR during the MCN1-elicited gastric mill rhythm selectively prolongs the protraction or retraction phase, respectively. Here, we found that these two influences on the CabPK-rhythm elicited some unique and unexpected consequences compared to their actions on the MCN1-rhythm. For example, in contrast to its effect on the MCN1-rhythm, CCAP selectively decreased the CabPK-rhythm retraction phase and thus increased the rhythm speed, whereas the CabPK-rhythm response to stimulating GPR during the retraction phase was similar its effect on the MCN1-rhythm (i.e. prolonging retraction). Interestingly, despite the comparable GPR actions on these degenerate rhythms, the underlying synaptic mechanism was distinct. Thus, degenerate circuits do not necessarily exhibit degenerate responses to the same influence, but when they do, it can occur via different underlying mechanisms.Significance StatementCircuits generating seemingly identical behaviors are often thought to arise from identical circuit states, as that is the most parsimonious explanation. Here we take advantage of an alternate scenario wherein a well-defined circuit with known connectivity generates similar activity patterns using distinct circuit states, via known mechanisms. The same peptide hormone modulation of these distinct circuit states produced divergent activity patterns, whereas the same sensory feedback altered these circuit outputs similarly but via different synaptic pathways. The latter observation limits the insights available from comparable studies in systems lacking detailed access to the underlying circuit.

Cool-core cycles and Phoenix

ABSTRACT Recent observations show that the star formation rate (SFR) in the Phoenix cluster’s central galaxy is ∼500 M⊙ yr−1. Even though Phoenix is a massive cluster (M200 ≈ 2.0 × 1015 M⊙; z ≈ 0.6) such a high central SFR is not expected in a scenario in which feedback from an active galactic nucleus (AGN) maintains the intracluster medium in a state of rough thermal balance. It has been argued that either AGN feedback saturates in very massive clusters or the central supermassive black hole is too small to produce enough kinetic feedback and hence is unable to quench the catastrophic cooling. In this work, we present an alternate scenario wherein intense short-lived cooling and star formation phases followed by strong AGN outbursts are part of the AGN feedback loop. Using results from a 3D hydrodynamic simulation of a standard cool-core cluster (M200 ∼ 7 × 1014 M⊙; z = 0), scaled to account for differences in mass and redshift, we argue that Phoenix is at the end of a cooling phase in which an AGN outburst has begun but has not yet arrested core cooling. This state of high cooling rate and star formation is expected to last for ≲100 Myr in Phoenix.

Educating the Reflexive Practitioner

“I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.”SocratesIntroductionStudio as a model of education is distinct from many other professionaldisciplines and although it can be quite rewarding on many levels it mayalso be an extremely unconstructive endeavor.1 The amount of time spent in studio typically far outweighs that spent for other courses and often atthe expense of such other courses. The dedication that students bring tothe studio is remarkable, yet much of the time spent in studio is not alwaysproductive. Students often complain of not knowing what is expected ofthem and as a result much of the time is spent thinking about what they think the professor wants to see as opposed to working through theirprojects. In an alternate scenario, students are crushed by the workload, tasks, demands or expectations of their instructors. In either case, the work is almost invariably driven by the students’ own creativity and imagination; unlike law, medicine, business, or engineering for example, where the interpretation and inquiry into case studies and cadaversis much less based on the personal introspection than established traditions. This extremely personal nature of the architectural studio canmake reviews either a devastating or extremely empowering process. As seen from the perspective of the larger university community, the studio is simply not an efficient way of education. The faculty to student ratio, for example, is not in accordance with other undergraduate disciplines. But this ratio, as we all know can also be a real strength. The often hermeticnature of the studio offers latitude for students to develop theirwork in relatively safe surroundings. This environment, however, may also foster the cult of personality that develops around certain professorsthat harkens back to the very roots of education but can also lead to anentourage of disciples who have no incentive to inform the Emperor that he or she is no longer wearing any clothes.Notwithstanding such issues, I do believe the studio holds the potentialto be an empowering learning experience. The intention of this article is to question the mode of instruction in an architectural studio. I’ve structured the paper in three parts. First, I will briefly describe the findingsof the study made by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancementof Teaching known as the Boyer Report.2 To develop and support the findings of the Boyer Report, I introduce the work of the educator Donald Schön. Though I see much merit in the Boyer Report, and Schön’sproposals, I argue that a more nuanced approach is required. I will recommend, therefore, in the second section of this paper that a meansof architectural education as based on the Socratic method may be amore productive approach. My reading of the Socratic method is basedprimarily on early Socratic dialogues and I will specifically use Charmidesto illustrate the issues that I believe are relevant to studio pedagogy.3 From my analysis of Charmides I will, in the third section of the essay,describe how the Socratic method is beneficial to studio pedagogy threeways: reflexive, non-propositional, and finally how Socrates’ approachmay indeed be practical. This last section will be illustrated with a studentproject. It is my conjecture that the Socratic method offers insight intocurrent discussions of educational theory, namely student-centered,project-based learning.

Islam and the West

This article systematically presents an alternate scenario to the themethat Islam and the West are heading toward an inevitable clash of civilizations.It explores the common mod values shared by Christians andMuslims and identifies many areas where both Islam and the Westwould benefit if they made common cause. The paper proceeds todeconstruct some of the imagined differences between Islam and theWest and proceed.. to examine the emerging reconciliation, mutualunderstanding, and cooperation between the Vatican and variousMuslim groups and governments. The author laments the decline ofmorality and virtue globally. He insists that the upsurge of spiritualityand piety in contemporary Muslim societies may benefit not only theWest but all of humanity. If Muslim fervor and Christian order canmake common cause, it can stem the moral and spiritual decline of civilization.