Anaphor binding

Scandinavian has a reflexive pronoun and a reflexive possessive for the 3rd person, and a reciprocal pronoun for all persons. Regular binding domains are finite and non-finite clauses, small clauses, and noun phrases with a verbal content and a genitive ‘agent’. There are also less expected binding relations within NPs, possibly involving an invisible binder. Within VP an indirect object may bind a direct object. Even non-c-commanding binders within VP do exist. Non-local binding into small clauses and infinitival clauses is frequent. Some varieties, especially Norwegian, also allow long distance binding, i.e. binding into finite subordinate clauses. At this point, there is a great deal of variation in acceptability, and definite rules are hard to identify.

Subordinate clauses

In subordinate clauses, the C position is occupied by a complementizer word, which may be null. The finite verb stays in V. SpecCP is either empty or occupied by a wh-word, or by some other element indicating its semantic function. Nominal clauses are finite or non-finite. Finite nominal clauses are declarative or interrogative. Declarative nominal clauses may under specific circumstances have main clause word order (‘embedded V2’). Infinitival clauses are marked by an infinitive marker, which is either in C (Swedish), or immediately above V (Danish). Norwegian has both options. Relative clauses comprise several different types; clauses with a relativized nominal argument are mostly introduced by a complementizer; adverbial relative clauses relativize a locative or temporal phrase, with or without a complementizer; comparative clauses relativize a degree or identity. Under hard-to-define circumstances depending on language and region, subordinate clauses allow extraction of phrases up into the matrix clause.

Introduction

The chapter has three parts. The first part is an introduction to the Mainland Scandinavian languages, with a brief sketch of their history, their relationship to the other Scandinavian languages, and their position among the North Germanic languages. Mainland Scandinavian is treated as one language, since it consists of a continuum of mutually intelligible dialects across Scandinavia. The second part is a presentation of the sources and the origin of the examples used in the book. They are taken from various sources, reference grammars, research literature, the internet, text corpora, and original research. The third part is a presentation of the theoretical background and the descriptive framework, which is generative grammar in its current version, known as ‘minimalism’.

The verb phrase

The verb phrase is headed by a verb, which may be an auxiliary verb with a grammatical function, a copula, or a lexical verb. Lexical verbs are avalent, transitive, intransitive, ergative, or unaccusative. The verb may have from zero to three arguments, and in addition various adjuncts. The verb always precedes its complements in base structure (VO), and complements may belong to any phrasal category. A crucial concept is that of the small clause (SC), consisting of a predicate word (non-finite verb, adjective, preposition) with possible complements, and a DP functioning as a SC subject. With intransitive and possibly with unaccusative verbs, the SC subject is the surface subject; with transitive verbs it is the object. The verbal particle is a special type of intransitive preposition. The indirect object is generated as the specifier of a lower VP. Free adjuncts, whether predicate or adverbial, are right-adjoined to VP.

The adjective phrase

Besides adjectives proper, participles also function syntactically as adjectives. Adjectives used as predicate complements have an external argument which may raise to become the subject of a copula or the object of a transitive verb. Adjectives may take complements, although mostly they occur without one. A few adjectives take a nominal complement, but mostly the complement is a PP. The complement may also be an infinitival relative, which is the derivational basis of ‘tough’ constructions. An adjective may be preceded by a modifying degree phrase (DegP), expressing degree or comparison. The comparative and the superlative are expressed by modifiers ‘more’ and ‘most’, or by a suffix which is checked against an abstract degree element in DegP. DegP may be followed by a comparative phrase which is extraposed to the right of the adjective.

The finite clause

The topic of this chapter is the T-domain. The specifier of TP is the subject position. The finite verb never appears in T on the surface. In subordinate clauses it remains in V; in main clauses it moves on to C. There is an obligatory subject requirement for all finite, non-imperative clauses. In cases where no argument raises to SpecTP, a non-referential element is used to fill the subject role. There are two kinds of passives, a periphrastic one with an auxiliary and the perfect participle, or one derived from the reflexive form of the verb. The passive subject may be any nominal complement, including the complement of some prepositions, stranding the preposition. Sentence adverbials are left-adjoined to VP. By object shift an unstressed pronoun is shifted across the sentence adverbial if no other material intervenes. Negated objects cannot occur in VP, and have to be replaced by the negation above VP.

Coordination and ellipsis

This chapter is about coordination, and ellipsis connected to coordination. Coordination is symmetric, where the conjuncts can be interchanged, or fixed. Symmetric coordination is typically additive or disjunctive, and fixed coordination is adversative. Causal coordination connects two main clauses, where one gives the cause of the other. The order depends on the conjunction used. Ellipsis in both directions of identical elements takes place in coordinated phrases of all kinds. Identical subjects are generally elided in the second clause. In such cases, an identical object may also be elided in the second clause. By sluicing an interrogative clause is elided, leaving only the wh-word. Pseudocoordination is the coordination of two verb phrases denoting one single event. The two verbs cannot both move to C, and a non-fronted subject follows the first verb but precedes the second, whereas in ordinary coordination, both verbs precede the subject.

The independent sentence

The topic of this chapter is the C-domain and the main clause. In main clauses the finite verb moves to C. By topicalization, a phrase of any lexical category is obligatorily moved to SpecCP, preceding the finite verb, in declarative main clauses. The verb is thus in second position; Mainland Scandinavian is a V2 language. Complements of prepositions can be topicalized, stranding the preposition. Among possible topicalizations, besides nominal and adverbial categories, are also verb phrases. Topicalization out of noun phrases and across clause boundaries is frequent. By topic doubling, a left-dislocated phrase may be resumed by a pronoun or an adverbial in the following topic position. In sentence questions, SpecCP is empty, and in phrasal questions SpecCP is filled by the interrogative phrase. Imperative sentences usually lack an overt subject.

The prepositional phrase

Prepositions are either basic lexical items, compounds, or lexicalized expressions. They denote various relations, such as location, direction to or from, time, manner, or more abstract relations. Prepositional phrases used as adverbial complements have an external argument which may raise to become the subject of a copula or the object of a transitive verb, or the subject or object of an unaccusative verb. A preposition may take its complement in a form of a DP, another PP, or a CP, or it may be intransitive. This is what prepositions have in common with verbs and adjectives. Some words that are traditionally called adverbs are here categorized as intransitive prepositions. Prepositions may be modified by words or phrases of various categories, such as adjectives in the neuter, adverbs, or measure phrases.

Nominals

This chapter deals with the DP and its various layers. The lowest layer is the lexical domain, the NP. On top of the NP, there is a grammatical domain, calledsee Inflectional Phrase (IP), which contains the nominal inflectional categories of number and definiteness. The highest domain is the referential domain, the DP. The noun may be followed by complements and adjuncts, mainly in the form of PPs, and preceded by adjectives or quantifiers. Definiteness may be expressed as a preposed definite article or as a suffix on the noun. A non-modified noun moves to D, but an adjective blocks this movement and the definite article is spelt out as a separate word in D. There are several ways of expressing possession, especially in Norwegian, where the possessor can be either pre- or postnominal. In the other languages it is prenominal. Restrictive relative clauses are right-adjoined to IP, non-restrictive to DP. Universal quantifiers are generated above DP.