Penanda Klausa Adverbial Dalam Bahasa Angkola

An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that serves to provide information on the main clause. The presence of an adverbial clause is not a must, but it can help create coherence in a discourse. This study aims to describe the markers of adverbial clauses in Angkola language. The method used is descriptive qualitative markers. Data collections are conducted by speaking, listening, and taking notes. The data in this study are adverbial clauses in Angkola language obtained from native Angkola speakers and also written sources obtained from Angkola language books. Data analysis was carried out by matching the data with the theory contained in the study, namely adverbial clause markers in Angkola language sentences. The results showed that there were five types of adverbial clauses in Angkola language, namely temporal clauses marked by the word dung 'after' and dompak 'when', conditional clauses marked by the word molo 'if', causal clauses (causal clause) which is marked by the word harana 'because', the purpose clause (purposal clause) which is marked by the word anso 'so that/so', and the concession clause (consessive clause) which is marked by the words bope 'although' and aha pe 'what ever'. The use of adverbial clauses can be found at the initial or final position in a sentence.

Семантическая обусловленность структуры конструкций с глаголами речи

Introduction. Explanatory constructions in the Buryat language, namely, those with verbs of speech as their main predicate, have not been studied in detail so far. Their systematic study involves a detailed analysis of both the semantics of the predicate of the main clause and the structure of the entire construction. The purpose of the article was to identify the correlation between the semantics of verbs of speech and the structural type of constructions. For the purpose, it was necessary i) to identify the group of verbs of speech, ii) to make an inventory of the structures in question, iii) to identify their structural types and specific characteristics, iv) to distribute verbs of speech according to structural types, and v) to study the interdependence between the semantics of verbs and the types of constructions. Original literary texts of the Buryat electronic corps served as material for the study. Linguistic observation, description, component analysis, and structural modeling were used as methods of the analysis. Research results. Buryat explanatory clauses are of the three structural types: participial, participial with postpositions, and bifinite constructions. Each of them specializes in expressing information of a particular level of abstraction: bifinite constructions introduce direct speech; participial constructions with the accusative case of the dependent predicate convey indirect speech; participial constructions with postpositions name the theme. As the analysis of the distribution of verbs of speech by structural types shows, verbs with semantics suggesting a long speech act like ‘to tell’ are more often used in bifinite and postpositional constructions. Those with the meaning of a short speech act, or of the type ‘to add’, implement the valence of the speech in constructions with direct speech and conjunction gezhe. Verbs of speech that differ in their role in communication, for example, asuu-, hura- (ask), implement the valence of the speech in bifinite constructions with gezhe and participles in the accusative case. The author concluded that the structure of the constructions under study is largely dependent on the semantics of the verbs of speech.

From Phrase to Clause: The Active Participle in Ugaritic

This paper suggests a morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the active participle in Ugaritic. The formally ambiguous cases are interpreted by taking into account the syntactic and semantic properties of explicit cases. The syntactic usages of the participle are the attributive phrase, the substantivized attributive phrase, the agent-noun, and the circumstantial participial phrase. The semantic analysis points at explicit verbal properties of some participial phrases in Ugaritic: they can denote a stage-level predicative core acquiring episodic interpretations and attaching temporal arguments. I hypothesize that the prototypical context for the development of the predicative participle (sporadically attested in the language of Ugaritic prose and consistently in later Northwest Semitic languages) is a participial phrase that suggests stage-level episodic interpretation and assigns subject that is co-referential with the main-clause subject.

Some notes on central causal clauses in Venetian

The goal of this paper is to provide novel evidence in favor of an integration of Haegeman’s (2002) taxonomy of adverbial clause subordination by discussing some data from C-introduced causal constructs in Venetian, the Italo-Romance dialect spoken in the city of Venice. Haegeman’s model is based on a two-class categorization of adverbial structures into central clauses, in which matrix-clause phenomena (such as the licensing of some sentence-initial or sentence-final discourse particle-like items, XP-fronting) are excluded, and peripheral clauses, in which these phenomena are licit. The external-syntactic distinction predicted by this model, namely a semantic differentiation resulting from TP/VP-adjunction for central vs. CP-adjunction for peripheral adverbial clauses, has severe consequences for the internal syntax of the a/m constructions, the most striking being the absence of the upper projections of the Split CP of central constructs. The data presented in this paper, however, suggest that (at least) in Venetian, (some) main-clause phenomena may also be licensed in central adverbial clauses under specific circumstances. Additionally, it will be shown that the conclusions drawn from the observation of the Venetian data match the behavior of the same constructions in Standard Italian, as well as in other languages, under the very same conditions.

СЪСТОЯНИЕТО КАТО ПРИЧИНА: КОНСТРУКЦИИТЕ С КАКЪВТО И КАКТО С ПРИЧИННО ЗНАЧЕНИЕ / STATE AS A CAUSE: CAUSAL CONSTRUCTIONS WITH КАКЪВТО AND КАКТО

Apart from their main function, the Bulgarian constructions with какъвто and както can express causal relations between the situations described in the main clause and the subordinate clause. The paper shows that in the causal use of both constructions the subordinate clause expresses a static feature, serving as a justification of the situation presented in the main clause. In addition, there is a semantic differentiation between the two models: какъвто normally expresses a usual (permanent) feature, while както denotes mostly a temporary (episodic) feature. Observations on the means used by Russian translators to convey this kind of causal meaning are also put forward. Keywords: state, causal relations, relative clauses, manner clauses, Bulgarian, Russian

Future conditionals in Lycian

Lycian funerary inscriptions, being overall legal statements regarding the correct management of the tomb after the death of its owner, comprise many future conditional clauses consisting of two types, paratactic and hypotactic. In the latter a preposed relative clause precedes a resumptive main clause, while in the former two adjoining main clauses are interpreted as protasis and apodosis without any obligatory subordinator. In the last case, the general rule is that some constituent pertaining to the preceding prohibition clause against unauthorized burial undergoes left dislocation, the contrastive topic pointing to the conditional character of the sentence. The lack of an overt subordinator in the paratactic type - the odd modal particle e͂‘if’ is at best optional - points to an archaism in Lycian, as opposed to Hittite and Luwian. This paper aims at providing a critical description of the future conditionals in the corpus, accounting for how they are formed and used.

Limits on semantic prediction in the processing of extraction from adjunct clauses

Processing filler-gap dependencies (‘extraction’) depends on complex top-down predictions. This is observed in comprehenders’ ability to avoid resolving filler-gap dependencies in syntactic island contexts, and in the immediate sensitivity to the plausibility of the resulting interpretation. How complex can these predictions be? In this paper, we examine the processing of extraction from adjunct clauses. Adjunct clauses are argued to be syntactic islands, however, extraction is permitted if the adjunct clause and main clause satisfy specific compositional and conceptual semantic criteria. In an acceptability judgment task, we found that this generalization is robust. Additionally, our results show that this is a property specific to adjunct clauses by comparing adjunct clauses to conjunct VPs, which are similarly argued to permit extraction depending on semantic factors. However, in an A-Maze task, we found no evidence that this knowledge is deployed in real-time sentence processing. Instead, we found that comprehenders attempted to resolve a filler-gap dependency in an adjunct clause regardless of its island status. We propose that this is because deploying this linguistic constraint depends on a second-order serial search over event schemata, which is likely costly and time-consuming. Thus, comprehenders opt for a riskier strategy and attempt resolution into adjunct clauses categorically.

Another way to look at counterfactuals

Counterfactuals such as If the world did not exist, we would not notice it have been a challenge for philosophers and linguists since antiquity. There is no generally accepted semantic analysis. The prevalent view, developed in varying forms by Robert Stalnaker, David Lewis, and others, enriches the idea of strict implication by the idea of a “minimal revision” of the actual world. Objections mainly address problems of maximal similarity between worlds. In this paper, I will raise several problems of a different nature and draw attention to several phenomena that are relevant for counterfactuality but rarely discussed in that context. An alternative analysis that is very close to the linguistic facts is proposed. A core notion is the “situation talked about”: it makes little sense to discuss whether an assertion is true or false unless it is clear which situation is talked about. In counterfactuals, this situation is marked as not belonging to the actual world. Typically, this is done in the form of the finite verb in the main clause. The if-clause is optional and has only a supportive role: it provides information about the world to which the situation talked about belongs. Counterfactuals only speak about some nonactual world, of which we only know what results from the protasis. In order to judge them as true or false, an additional assumption is required: they are warranted according to the same criteria that warrant the corresponding indicative assertion. Overall similarity between worlds is irrelevant.

des-, mata- ja maks-konverbitarindi inforoll

Kokkuvõte. Artikkel käsitleb eesti keele des-, mata- või maks-konverbitarindit sisaldavat komplekslauset. Aluseks on kvalitatiivne uurimus, mille käigus on analüüsitud 1803 konverbitarindit sisaldava lause semantilisi, morfosüntaktilisi ja infostruktuurilisi tunnuseid. Antakse ülevaate sellest, missuguseid inforolle täidab konverbitarind põhilause suhtes ja missuguste teguritega seostub konverbitarindi inforolli varieerumine. Uurimusest selgub konverbitarindi neli põhilist inforolli: 1) raamistav teema, 2) reema taustaosa, 3) fookus ja 4) omaette infoüksus. Konverbitarindi inforoll seostub tihedalt sõnajärjega, nii konverbi kui ka tarindi asukohaga. Konverbialguline tarind toimib tavaliselt omaette infoüksusena, konverbilõpuline ja ühesõnaline tarind aga moodustavad põhilausega ühise infoüksuse. Tarindi inforoll oleneb seejuures tarindi asukohast: konverbilõpuline või ühesõnaline eestarind toimib tavaliselt raamistava teemana, sisetarind reema taustaosana ja järeltarind fookusena. Teistest teguritest seostuvad konverbitarindi inforolliga nt kirjavahemärgistus, põhilause kommunikatiivne tüüp, fookustavad üldlaiendid, konverbi laiendite pikkus ja struktuur ning semantiline funktsioon. Abstract. Carl Eric Simmul: The informational role of Estonian ‑des, ‑mata and ‑maks converb constructions. This article discusses the complex clauses that entail an Estonian ‑des, ‑mata or ‑maks converb construction, i.e., an infinite construction functioning as a free modifier. The article is based on a study of 1803 sentences entailing a converb construction, and gives an overview of the informational roles of the converb construction as well as the main factors of its variation. The study revealed that the Estonian converb construction has four main informational roles: 1) frame-setting topic, 2) background of the comment, 3) focused part of the comment and 4) distinct information unit. The informational role of a converb construction mainly depends on the word order. A construction starting with a converb normally functions as a distinct information unit. A construction ending with a converb or consisting only of a converb normally forms an unitary information unit together with the main clause. The specific informational role of the construction ending with a converb or consisting only of a converb is dependent on the position of the construction: constructions located before the main clause function as topics, constructions located inside the main clause function as the background part of the comment, constructions located after the main clause function as foci. Other important factors related to the informational role are, for example, the interpunction, the communicative type of the main clause, focusing adverbs, the semantic function of the converb construction, the length and structure of the arguments of the converb construction.

If-Clauses, Their Grammatical Consequents, and Their Embodied Consequence: Organizing Joint Attention in Guided Tours

In linguistics, if-clauses have attracted the interest of scholars working on syntax, typology and pragmatics alike. This article examines if-clauses as a resource available to tour guides for reorienting the visitors’ visual attention towards an object of interest. The data stem from 11 video-recorded tours in Italian, French, German and Dutch (interpreted into Flemish Sign Language). In this setting, guides recurrently use if-clauses to organize a joint focus of attention, by soliciting the visitors to bodily and visually rearrange. These clauses occur in combination with verbs of vision (e.g., to look), or relating to movement in space (e.g., to turn around). Using conversation analysis and interactional linguistics, this study pursues three interrelated objectives: 1) it examines the grammatical relationship that speakers establish between the if-clause and the projected main clause; 2) it analyzes the embodied conduct of participants in the accomplishment of if/then-constructions; 3) it describes if-clauses as grammatical resources with a twofold projection potential: a vocal-grammatical projection enabling the guide (or the addressees) to achieve a grammatically adequate turn-continuation, and an embodied-action projection, which solicits visitors to accomplish a situationally relevant action, such as reorienting gaze towards an object of interest. These projections do not run independently from each other. The analysis shows how, while producing an if-clause, guides adjust their emerging talk—through pauses, expansions and restarts—to the visitors’ co-occurring spatial repositioning. These practices are described as micro-sequential adjustments that reflexively affect turn-construction and embodied compliance. In addressing the above phenomena and questions, this article highlights the fundamentally adaptive, situated and action-sensitive nature of grammar.